The victorian naturalist

The

Victorian

Naturalist

Volume 130 (1)

February 2013

Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884

From the Editors

This year began with a January that was not excessively hot, and while February has indeed been
warm with temperatures consistently rising into the low thirties, the over-arching weather feature
in Victoria has been the lack of rain. This summer 2012/13 must be one of the driest on record. We
have had fires, both deliberately lit and naturally sparked, which have caused widespread havoc in
some of our more natural bushland areas. But the bush is remarkable for its ability to renew itself
after fires through regeneration. As long as fires occur infrequently we can expect to maintain the
biodiversity of these areas.

At The Victorian Naturalist our year begins with a substantial issue of the Journal containing pa-
pers on a wide spectrum of subjects with species from the Animal Kingdom, both vertebrate and
invertebrate, strongly represented. Also we pay tribute to and farewell Dorothy Mahler, a faithful
servant of the Club.

The Victorian Naturalist

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Volume 130 (1) 2013

Victorian

Naturalist

February

Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson

Editorial Assistant: Virgil Hubregtse

From the Editors 2

Research Reports Birds of Seal Rocks in northern Bass Strait over 40 years (1965-2005),

by Robert M Warneke and Peter Dann 4

Sleeping aggregations of bees in relation to the risk of fire at their roosting

sites in a forested, suburban landscape in eastern Australia, by PJ Kubiak 22

Contributions Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus in Framlingham Forest, south-west Victoria:

Introduction, translocation and the effects of a bushfire, by Robert L Wallis 37

A rare sighting of the Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus

in north-central Victoria, by Anna K Flanagan-Moodie 40

The rare collembolan genus, Temeritas (Symphypleona: Sminthuridae),
in southern Australia: systematics, distribution and conservation status,
by Penelope Greenslade 45

Naturalist Note Leech predation of frog spawn, by Grant S Turner 49

Tribute Dorothy Mahler 28 February 1941 - 12 December 2012 53

Book Reviews Wetland Weeds: Causes, Cures and Compromises by Nick Romanowski ,

reviewed by Mary Gibson 54

Kangaroos by Terence Dawson, reviewed by Rob L Wallis 56

Australia’s Amazing Kangaroos: their conservation, unique biology and

coexistence with humans by Ken Richardson reviewed by Rob L Wallis 57

A Natural History of Australian Bats - Working the Night Shift by

Greg Richards and Les Hall, reviewed by Tanja Straka 59

A Guide to Australia’s Spiny Freshwater Crayfish

by Robert B. McCormack, reviewed by Gary CB Poore 60

Australian High Country Owls by Jerry Olsen, reviewed by Raylene Cooke 62

Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund 63

ISSN 0042-5184

Front cover: Lipotriches australica sleeping aggregation, December 2006. Photo by P Kubiak.
Back cover: Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa. Photo by Anne Morton

Research Reports

Birds of Seal Rocks in northern Bass Strait over 40 years (1965-2005)

Robert M. Warneke 1 and Peter Dann 2

'Blackwood Lodge, 1511 Mt Hicks Road, Wynyard, Tasmania 7325.

Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, P. O. Box 97, Cowes, Phillip Island, Victoria 3922
E-mail: pdann@penguins.org.au

Abstract

Long-term datasets of fauna are rare for uninhabited islands in south-eastern Australia. Here we report on
40 years of observations from 1965 to 2005 on the birds of Seal Rocks in northern Bass Strait. Seventy- five
native and six exotic species including 2 1 native passerines were observed at Seal Rocks or nearby. Six species
were recorded breeding — Crested Tern Thalasseus bergii. Silver Gull Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae, Sooty
Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus. Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena, Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris
and, for the first time in Victoria, Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus. The main changes to breeding birds over the
40 years have been the movement and expansion of the breeding colonies of Crested Terns and Silver Gulls to
adjacent parts of nearby Phillip Island, and the arrival and expansion of the breeding Kelp Gull population.
Kelp Gulls have increased substantially at Seal Rocks since their arrival in 1968. The first reported breeding
for Victoria occurred there in 1971. The expansion of Kelp Gulls may have been associated with the expansion
of Australian Fur Seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus numbers which, on one hand, has reduced the number
of suitable breeding sites but, on the other hand, has increased the amount of food available in the forms of
vomited food remains and placentae. The variety of land birds recorded on Seal Rocks was surprisingly high,
given the exposed nature and relative sterility of the terrain; however, the strait between Seal Rock and Phil-
lip Island is narrow and all the species recorded there are common in the region and most are wide-ranging
seasonally or undertake significant north-south migrations. Records were relatively few after 1997 due, in part,
to the reduced amount of vegetation on the islets and greatly reduced lengths of research stays. ( The Victorian
Naturalist 130(1)2013,4-21).

Key words: Seal Rocks, Phillip Island, birds, long-term survey

Introduction

Seal Rocks (38° 32’ S, 145° 06’ E), a State Faunal
Reserve, comprises two small islets — Seal Rock
and Black Rock — which lie about 1.5 km off
the south-west point of Phillip Island, Victoria
(Fig. 1). Seal Rock, the larger islet, includes two
detached rocks to the north-west and an exten-
sive area of low-lying reef to the east, which is
cut off at high tide (Fig. 2). The total land area
is about 2.8 ha.

Although Seal Rocks has had a long history of
visits by Europeans dating from 1801 (Warneke
1982, 2003), very few detailed accounts survive
and none provide any useful information on
the vegetation or bird life. This paper reports
on incidental sightings and observations on
birds ashore and at sea around the islets, accu-
mulated during a program of research on the
resident colony of Australian fur seals Arcto-
cephalus pusillus doriferus , by Robert Warneke
(1965-1991) and continuing studies there on
fur seals and birds by Roger Kirkwood (RK)
and Peter Dann (1998-2005). Datasets of such
duration are rare, particularly for uninhabited
islands in south-eastern Australia.

Field studies were initiated in 1965 by the
Fisheries and Wildlife Department (now the
Department of Sustainability and Environ-
ment) and supported until 1979. A field station
was built on the southern plateau of Seal Rock
in the summer of 1965-1966 (Warneke 1966)
and subsequently other structures were erected
to facilitate aspects of the project including a fly-
ing-fox connecting the two islets (1967), a small
observation hide on each of the Seal Rock pla-
teaux (1967) and a 15 m steel observation tower
adjacent to the station (1969). Most of this in-
frastructure was demolished by 1979 when a
second field station was built out of rock at the
base of the northern end of South Plateau.

A small research team visited Seal Rocks at
approximately monthly intervals from 1966
until 1972, but thereafter visits were limited to
November and December each year to moni-
tor events during the breeding season and to
count pups. Pups were routinely marked each
January until 1977. From 1979 to 1991 RMW
continued the November-December monitor-

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Research Reports

144* E 145* E 146* E

Fig. 1 . Locations of Seal Rocks and Phillip Island in Bass Strait, south-eastern Australia

ing and counting on a private basis until, by
1991, very few marked animals remained alive
(Warneke 2003). More recently, Seal Rock has
been visited on 40 occasions between February
1997 and April 2005 by PD and RK. Most visits
were of several hours’ duration but several trips
lasted 3-4 days while satellite transmitters were
deployed on fur seals (Kirkwood et al. 2005).

Opportunities for observation were con-
strained by the demands of the seal study,
and although new’ or rarely seen species and
significant activities were always duly noted,
observations on resident species were not sys-
tematically recorded. Visits to many parts of
Seal Rock were consciously limited, to avoid
disturbing the seals, and extra care was taken
when birds were nesting; visits to check the
contents of particular nests were cautious and
brief. Landings on Black Rock were difficult
and risky until the flying fox was in place, but
even then that islet was visited only for specific
tasks such as tagging seal pups.

Vol 130 (1) 2013

The data accumulated under these circum-
stances, especially during the most intense peri-
od of seal research from 1966 to 1972, provide a
fairly clear picture of bird diversity on the islets,
including the occurrence of seasonal migrants.
Most observations were made with the aid of
Zeiss 8 x 30 binoculars, and frequently an 800
mm telescope was used for closer viewing of a
particular bird or activity. The effective visual
range was usually about 1 km for large seabirds
or congregations, and as far as 3 km in clear
weather using the telescope. Observational ef-
fort differed between the period of intense seal
research (1966-1972) and the later years (1997-
2005). These are referred to hereafter as the first
and second survey periods respectively. Bird
observations in the later years were confined
to the islets and waters immediately adjacent,
using 10 x 20 binoculars; consequently, many
fewer pelagic seabirds were recorded.

Records of birds summarised here consist
of notes in RMW’s field journals, to which all

5

Research Reports

team members 1 contributed sightings; brief
entries in surviving personal diaries kept by
Fred Baum (1965-1968, 1970-1971) and Kevin
Chipperfield (1968), which include visits when
RMW was not present; and Phillip Island Na-
ture Park research groups records of 40 visits
between 1997 to 2005. A negative linear bino-
mial generalised model was used for looking at
the seasonal pattern of Kelp Gull numbers us-
ing R software (version 2.15.1; R Development
Core Team 2012).

Physical and biological features of Seal Rocks

The continuing effects of tides and storms on
the geology of the islets have resulted in a var-
ied topography of plateau tops, cliffs with ledg-
es and undercuts, caves, gullies, boulder-strewn
upper slopes, cobblestone-pebble shingle, worn
wave-washed shore platforms with some deep
tide pools, and many ephemeral tide pools
flushed only by the highest tides or storm seas.
Both islets are basically low platforms of fine-
grained black basalt surrounding areas of pla-
teaux of varying height to about 12 m above sea
level. These plateaux are remnants of later vol-

canic events and consist of deposits of tuff over-
lain by lava flows. Storm waves have eroded the
softer tuff and this has led to undercutting and
rock falls from above. Many cliff faces are sheer
with narrow ledges, and shallow caves occur at
the south end of South Plateau and on all sides
of Black Rocks central plateau.

Land plants survive only where the seals have
no or only limited access, i.e. on cliff faces and
some parts of the plateaux tops. Gravel from
weathering of the volcanic rock tends to accu-
mulate on ledges and in fissures on cliff faces,
and supports clumps and mats of Rounded
Leaf Noon Flower Disphyma australe. Along
the margins of abrupt cliff tops, where rest-
ing seals are less inclined to lie, this plant has
a precarious hold and generally forms a nar-
row ridge-like mat. Seedlings of Ruby Saltbush
Enchylaena tomentosa were occasionally found,
apparently imported via bird faeces or pellets. If
they germinated in protected places on the cliffs
they flourished for several years. Other colo-
nists were Bower Spinach Tetragonia implexico-
ma , Cape Weed Cryptostemma calendula , Sow

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The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

Thistle Sonchus sp., a nightshade Solarium sp.
and Boxthorn Lycium ferrosissimum, but, with
the exception of Bower Spinach and Southern
Sea-heath Frankenia pauciflora, none survived
for long. Small mats of Beaded Glasswort Sali-
cornia quinqueflora were found on Black Rock
plateau in 1968 and 1971. A profusion of ma-
rine plants and invertebrates occurred at the
edges of the shore platforms and on East Reef
in the intertidal zone, including seaweeds, kelp
Macrocystis sp., cunjevoi Pyura sp., barnacles,
limpets, chitons, mussels (mainly Xenostrobus
sp.) and the gastropods Subninella sp. and Ner-
ita sp. were very common. Dense beds of kelp
also occurred in the shallow bay formed by the
two islets on the eastern side.

The insect fauna appeared to be diverse and
most forms were seen only during the warmer
months. It included field crickets Teleogryllus
commodus , at least six different kinds of wasps
(especially the orange ichneumon Netelia sp.),
a black ant and a small black native bee; blow-
flies ( Calliphora sp.) and a small black fly com-
mon in humid weather and attracted to sweaty
skin; dragonflies and damselflies; moths (most
notably Agrostis sp.) and butterflies (including
Vanessa kershawi), and mosquitoes, noticeable
only when a sheltered depression in the lee of
the south end of North Plateau was sporadical-
ly filled by sea spray and rain showers, in which
larvae were observed.

Species notes

Nomenclature and systematic order follows
Christidis and Boles (2008).

Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis

Eight records of lone birds sighted on or about
South Plateau, among the mats of noon flower
or in the cover of rocks, in November of 1965,
1967 and 1969, December 1971, and in October
and December 1975. The desiccated remains of
a bird were found on South Plateau on 16 No-
vember 1967. Specimen RW#465, collected 25
November 1969 (Museum Victoria).

Black Swan Cygnus atratus
Four records of birds in transit; eight were seen
heading west on 15 December 1969, one head-
ing south on 19 December 1970, 11 heading
west on 23 February 1972, and five heading
north on 18 November 1975.

Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadornoides

A line of seven passed by to the north on 20
December 1974 flying towards the west.

Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa

A pair on 19 October 1970 flying slightly east
of south, but they turned west before being lost
to view.

Rock Dove Columba livia

Seven sightings of lone birds during the first
survey period, in January and between May
and August, and one of a group of three in No-
vember. Most were seen flying over or past the
islets and generally in a northerly direction. On
two occasions, lone birds landed.

Common Bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera

One record only, of a bird seen to pitch into the
noon flower sward at the north end of South
Plateau on 24 April 1968. It appeared to be
moulting, having only one remaining loose tail
feather.

White-throated Needletail Hinindapus caudacu-
tus

One sighting of a lone bird that passed low over
Seal Rock from the north-east at 17.30 hr on
17 January 1969 shortly after a north-westerly
change. This species has been sighted over tidal
flats on Western Port (Davies and Reid 1975b).

White-faced Storm-Petrel Pelagodroma marina

One record of a bird that flew into the field sta-
tion through the open door on 18 October 1967
at 20.00 hr.

Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans

Twenty-two sightings offshore during the first
survey period, between mid-June to mid-No-
vember, and two additional records in mid-Jan-
uary. Most sightings were of lone birds gliding
in rough windy weather, well offshore within
a broad arc from the south-east to the north-
west, and predominantly during south-westerly
blows. Six sightings were of lone birds flying in
calm conditions.

Black-browed Albatross 7 halassarche melanophris

The most commonly observed albatross, from
April to mid-December, but the majority of
sightings (247 of 262) were from June to Au-
gust; frequently in association with Shy Alba-
tross Thalassarche cauta. Peak numbers were

Vol 130 (1)2013

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Research Reports

recorded in the latter parts of May or June,
usually on days of very rough weather. The
greatest concentration was noted on 23 June
1971 during a hard south-westerly gale, when
over 200 were in view within an arc from the
south-east to the south-west. This species was
observed only once in the second survey pe-
riod when ten birds were seen on 25 May 1999.
Despite frequent sightings close to shore early
in the first survey period, feeding was rarely
observed. On two occasions three to six birds
fought over flotsam, identified in one instance
as a large cuttlefish (probably Sepia apama); on
another, two birds were observed harassing a
seal thrashing a moderately large prey item at
the surface, and on a third occasion several al-
batross paddled up to an Australasian Gannet
Morus senator when it surfaced with a fish and
attempted to snatch it.

Shy Albatross Thalassarche cauta

Active offshore in small numbers from late
April to mid-December (28 records), but with
no obvious peak or influx as in the case of the
preceding species. Possible feeding activity was
observed on 15 June 1969 when several birds
settled on a patch of discoloured water, which
may have been a surface shoal of fish, to the
south of Black Rock.

Southern Giant-Petrel Macronectes giganteus

Giant- Petrels were frequently seen offshore
from June to December throughout the 40 year
period, with a few additional sightings of lone
birds in January, February, April and May. Dark-
plumaged individuals predominated, with only
three all-white (June, September), one grey
(June) and one pale-headed individual (June)
in 157 sightings. Only one record was made in
the second survey period (June 2005).

Despite Giant- Petrels being avid scavengers
of dead seals on many subantarctic seal islands
and the frequent presence of seal carcases on
Seal Rocks, only two instances of scavenging
by Southern Giant-Petrels were observed, on 27
May 1972 and 24 June 1972. However, Giant-
Petrels were seen feeding on carcasses floating
offshore on several occasions, and once two Gi-
ant-Petrels were observed paddling about over a
concentration of Coastal Krill Nyctiphanes aus-
tralis and small fish, which in turn had attracted
albatrosses, gannets and other small seabirds.

On three occasions a lone Giant-Petrel was
seen ashore on the Main Beach breeding area,
resting or walking among the fur seals with
wings partly opened. Juvenile seals and even
adult males retreated, whereas cows with young
pups responded with open-mouthed threats.

Northern Giant- Petrel Macronectes halli

Only one certain record of a bird resting on the
water off East Reef on 5 February 1979 (RMW,
FTB).

Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides

A lone bird was sighted by KJC flying low over
North Beach at midday on 22 August 1968.

Cape Petrel Daption capense

Eight sightings of lone birds between June and
September, of a pair on 22 August 1968, and of
a lone bird in mid- December. Usually seen fly-
ing low over the water and if alighting only for
brief periods. On two occasions a Cape Petrel
hovered about in the vicinity of a resting Giant-
Petrel, but no interaction occurred. Specimen
RW#216 collected 22 August 1968 (Museum
Victoria).

Fairy Prion Pachyptila turtur

Observed once, on 16 June 1969. A group of
20-30 dived repeatedly into a swarm of krill lo-
cated about 1.5 km south of Black Rock in com-
pany with feeding Short-tailed and Fluttering
Shearwaters and White-fronted Terns. Speci-
men RW#414, collected 16 June 1969 (Mu-
seum of Victoria), a male, testes minute, heavy
sub-cutaneous fat deposits, stomach filled with
Coastal Krill N. australis.

Short-tailed Shearwater Ardenna tenuirostris

The daily passage of large numbers of this
shearwater to and from breeding colonies on
the south-west and south coasts of Phillip Is-
land was a feature of the offshore bird activity
from October to February each year. Thereafter
to the beginning of May the number and regu-
larity of sightings declined. Observations fell
into three broad categories — morning exodus
and evening return, localised activity at the sea
surface within 3-4 km of Seal Rocks, and indi-
vidual birds at or close inshore.

The morning exodus in calm to moderate
weather was an orderly stream passing East

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The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

Reef heading to the south and south-west; no
movement to the south-east was observed. In
strong winds and heavy seas the birds were
active offshore all day, widely dispersed on all
sides and seemed to circle the islets both clock-
wise and counter-clockwise. Landward move-
ment in the evening was always diffuse. In flat
calm seas, large raffs (c. 300-500 individuals)
of these shearwaters were occasionally noted
about 3-4 km offshore to the south-east and
always in the same general vicinity. During the
morning these raffs continually broke up and
reformed nearby, but if present in late after-
noon they were more stable, with most birds
resting quietly. Infrequently, large flocks and
small groups were seen feeding at the surface to
the south-east, south and south-west. Tempo-
rary raffs formed when birds alighted over con-
centrations of krill, dipping and diving beneath
the surface. In January and February 2000, c.
3500 and 200 respectively were recorded feed-
ing within several kilometres of the islets.

Crested Terns and Fluttering Shearwaters
were occasionally seen feeding with Short-
tailed Shearwaters on the same concentrations.
Most unexpectedly, a few Short-tailed Shear-
waters were seen in June 1969, on several oc-
casions during the 15th, 18th and 19th. The
context of these sightings was remarkable in
that these birds were active on a large swarm of
Coastal Krill, together with Fairy Prions, Flut-
tering Shearwaters, White-fronted Terns, Silver
Gulls, Black-browed and Shy Albatross, Giant-
Petrels and Australasian Gannets. However,
only the shearwaters, prions and terns were
feeding directly on the crustaceans.

On rare occasions lone Short-tailed Shearwa-
ter were seen resting on the sea, and in calm
conditions were prone to attack by predators. In
one instance two immature Pacific Gulls repeat-
edly buffeted the Shearwater when it attempted
to lift off the surface, knocking it down into the
water. On another occasion two Giant-Petrels
were seen tearing at a helpless bird floating at
the surface. Despite opportunities for Austral-
ian fur seals to prey on Short-tailed Shearwater
in nearby waters, no instances were observed.
Similarly, Deagle et al. (2009) found no evi-
dence of shearwaters (or any other birds) in the
faeces of fur seals at Seal Rocks.

Fluttering Shearwater Puffinus gavia

Recorded on 16 occasions offshore in the first
survey period, most frequently in June-July
and October-November, usually in groups
of 2-5 birds. On 3 November 1969 at least 50
were observed feeding within 100 m of North
Beach. Sightings in January, April and Septem-
ber were of single birds. In calm weather feed-
ing birds rose from the surface, flew a short
distance and plunged in with wings extended.
In rough weather they would fly into the face of
an oncoming wave, emerge from the rear and
fly into the next. By dropping back 50 m or so
with the wind after passing through a succes-
sion of waves the same general vicinity would
be worked in this way for about an hour. Speci-
mens RW#416, 16 June 1969; RW#449, 20 Oc-
tober 1969 (Museum Victoria).

Common Diving-Petrel Pelecanoides urina-
trix

One record only, of a desiccated carcass found
in the enclosed South Plateau observation hide
on 26 May 1976. It had entered via a narrow gap
in the roof at some time after 7 January 1976.
On 25 May 1976 RMW, on board the Lorraine
May of San Remo, observed a widely dispersed
group of 50+ Diving- Petrels off Pyramid rock,
approximately 13 km east of Seal Rocks.

Little Penguin Eudyptula minor

Breeding was not observed, but small numbers
came ashore to moult or rest or because they
were sick or injured. Moulting birds were found
from mid- January to mid- April, but as sites free
of disturbance by seals were few, the maximum
number of birds found at any one time was
eight. Moulting birds hid behind fallen boul-
ders at the base of South Plateau and North
Plateau or in shallow caves, or took advantage
of artificial shelter afforded by a wood stack and
a section of flooring stored under a cliff over-
hang. Four single birds were found moulting in
crevices around South Plateau between Febru-
ary and May 1997-2005.

Penguins found at other times of the year (24
alive, 21 dead) were all in light to poor condi-
tion; in eight instances they were wholly or
partly stained by oil. A young lightly oiled bird
found on 16 January 1973 was infested with a
large number of ticks attached to the back of

Vol 130 (1) 2013

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its head and neck. Ten carcasses were found
within tide reach and may have died at sea,
but the remainder had died where they had
taken shelter. On 10 occasions, live penguins
were seen during the day among fur seals rest-
ing on Main Beach and North Beach, and were
completely ignored by the seals, although the
Cape Fur Seal A. pusillus pusillus and the New
Zealand Fur Seal A. forsteri are known to prey
upon penguins (Shaughnessy 1978; Page et al.
2005). Although in plain view of Pacific and
Silver gulls, on only one occasion was a pen-
guin harassed and forced to retreat to the sea.
Penguins were occasionally seen feeding within
about 100 m of the shore and often were heard
calling in calm, foggy weather.

Frigatebird Fregata sp.

A single sighting, on 20 December 1968 by
RMW and WMB. Shortly after 13.00 hr, atten-
tion was drawn by a chorus of alarm calls from
the colony of Silver Gulls to a dark bird passing
south over East Reef. Although closely pursued
by the gulls it flew unhurriedly off to the west.

Australasian Gannet Morns serrator

Seen frequently offshore throughout the year,
but most often between November and Janu-
ary, and generally out to sea within an arc from
east to south-east or from west to south-west.
About half of the 151 records were of lone birds
and the remainder were of groups of 2 to 30,
usually flying in lines abreast or trailing. Imma-
ture gannets in mottled plumage were seen in
all months, alone, in pairs and in the company
of adults. Feeding dives were seen on a few oc-
casions (see notes on Short-tailed Shearwater)
and in May 1999, groups of 20 and 30 were seen
feeding in conjunction with Crested Terns and
Silver Gulls, on clupeiod fish probably being
driven to the surface by Australian Salmon Ar-
ripis truttaceous.

Little Pied Cormorant Microcarbo melanoleucos

One bird, probably the same individual, was
sighted on most visits through 1971 and 1972
(26 records) and was usually actively fishing.
Lone birds were seen infrequently in 1969, 1973,
1976, 2001, 2002 and 2003 (12 records). Fishing
activity was confined to the protected waters of
the landing gutter, Seal Pool and the deep tide
pools at the south end of Main Beach. Juvenile
Bluethroat Wrasse Notolabrus tectricus up to 15

10

cm long were a common prey, and one other
fish taken appeared to be a Crested Weedfish
Cristiceps australis, which occurred in the per-
manent tide pools. When in the water the bird
was extremely wary of seals and when resting
always chose a rock well clear of those ashore. It
became noticeably agitated if the resident Kelp
Gulls passed overhead, but tolerated the close
proximity of other resting cormorants.

Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo

During the first decade of this survey this spe-
cies was a rare visitor, in spring and summer,
with only four sightings of one or two birds
present for two or three days. During the after-
noon of 24 November 1976, 6-10 birds settled
near Black-faced Cormorants on North Plateau
and towards evening a flock of 60+ flew past;
the last and maximum count on North Plateau
that season was 30 on 14 December 1976. Up
to five were recorded at the roost in November
and December 1977 and one to two in Decem-
ber 1978 and 1979. Single birds were recorded
on North Plateau on visits in October and No-
vember 1999 and January 2000.

Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

Four records only; of a single bird resting among
a group of immature Pacific Gulls on Main
Beach on 23 October 1972, of two birds resting
near a Little Pied Cormorant and Black-faced
Cormorants on Main Beach on 16 November
1972, of a single bird resting with Black-faced
Cormorants on North Plateau on 27 December
2002, and a desiccated carcass on Main Beach
below South Plateau on 6 January 1977.

Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax varius

Six records in January, March, August and De-
cember of lone birds standing quietly on rocks
close to the water’s edge. One additional sight-
ing was of two birds that perched briefly on the
steel flying-fox cable mid-way between the is-
lets, on 7 March 1969. Not recorded in the sec-
ond period of the survey.

Black-faced Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens
In groups generally less than four, rarely more
than 10, from February to November, roost-
ing in the evening on portions of high rock
masses not used by the fur seals, i.e. the south-
east point of Black Rock and the north edge of
North Plateau, with a distinct preference for the

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

latter. In December to January over seven sea-
sons (1966-1972), numbers increased to an av-
erage of 26 and 32 respectively. A maximum of
67 was recorded on 14 December 1977. In the
second survey period, numbers ranged from
0-57 and averaged 1 1.7.

On North Plateau they invariably roosted in
a group along the northern edge, spaced uni-
formly about 1 m apart, standing or sleeping in
an upright posture. Individuals sometimes tore
up abandoned Silver Gull nests of dried noon
flower stems, tossing beakfulls of the material
into the air. Their roosting area became heavily
fouled with white guano splashes during sum-
mer and encroached on nest sites of Crested
Terns, Silver Gulls and a pair of Sooty Oyster-
catchers. Some birds were occasionally seen
fishing in open waters near shore, but never
in the Seal Pool or in the deep tide pools on
Main Beach. Disgorged food items found in the
roosting area on North Plateau included a small
leatherjacket (Aluteridae) and an Australian
Salmon.

Cattle Egret Ardea ibis

Single record of a solitary bird on Black Rock
on 13 April 2000.

White-faced Heron Egretta novaehollandiae

Thirty-one records, mainly of lone birds, but also
of groups of up to 10 in summer and autumn
during periods of calm weather. About half the
sightings were of birds flying past directly to-
wards Phillip Island or north-west. Those seen
on shore chose to roost either on the plateaux or
outer reef areas well clear of any seals.

Royal Spoonbill Platalea regia

One sighting of a lone bird on 27 January 1966
that circled above Seal Rocks several times and
then settled briefly on East Reef before heading
north into a light north-easterly breeze.

White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leu-
cogaster

One sighting on 16 November 1977 of a lone
adult that made a low leisurely circuit of the is-
lets followed by a mob of screaming Silver Gulls,
that were at the peak of nesting. This bird was
probably one of a pair resident at French Island
and often seen in the vicinity of Sandy Point 17
km to the north (Davis and Reid 1975a).

Swamp Harrier Circus approximans

Four records of one or two birds passing — on
4 November 1969, 25 July 1971, 21 September

1971 and 18 January 1973. The resident Silver
Gulls were greatly alarmed when they flew
overhead and on one occasion a pair of nest-
ing Kelp Gulls pursued a lone Harrier so closely
that it was forced to flip and present its talons
to break up the attack. The July record was of
a lone adult flying slowly due south and stead-
ily gaining in altitude until out of sight. A fifth
record was of a lone bird perched on a wooden
plank near the field station on 13 August 1969.

Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides

Six sightings in January (1966, 1968 and 1972),
and single sightings in April 1966, September
1968, November 1970 and June 1972. All were
of lone birds either perched on cliff ledges or
the railing of the observation towers upper
deck, or hovering over the plateaux. On 19 June

1972 a large female was disturbed from the car-
cass of a Common Starling from which most of
the flesh had been stripped. She later returned
and carried off the remains. Later that day two
other partly consumed Starlings were found on
Main Beach and South Plateau. The hind end of
a small rat (possibly Rattus norvegicus ), found
on North Plateau two days later, had probably
been carried to the islet by this Kestrel.

Brown Falcon Falco berigora

Four records; two birds on 20 January 1966,
and lone birds on 26 February 1966, 17 Janu-
ary 1972 and 17 November 1977. On the first
three occasions the birds remained high and
showed interest in the activity of Silver Gulls
and Crested Terns below, but they eventually
flew off towards Phillip Island. On the last oc-
casion the Falcon took a Silver Gull chick from
West Beach and flew off to the north-east. Al-
though the gull colony was greatly alarmed, the
Falcon was not pursued.

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus

Four records, possibly of the same bird, on 2
and 10 November 1970 and on 9 and 15 Janu-
ary 1971 circling the islets. On the latter two oc-
casions it was driven from the vicinity of North
Plateau by a mob of Silver Gulls and flew off to
the Nobbies, rousing the gull colony there.

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Australian Pied Oystercatcher Haema-
topus longirostris

Two birds were sighted on 4 and 16 November
1969 and lone birds on 7 October 1970 and 15
November 1972. All records were of birds mak-
ing several circuits of the islets before heading
off towards Phillip Island. On one occasion
two birds settled on East Reef but were quickly
driven off by a resident pair of Sooty Oyster-
catchers.

Sooty Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus

Three resident pairs routinely nested on the is-
lets throughout both survey periods. The maxi-
mum number recorded was nine on 25 Octo-
ber 1999 and there were less present in winter,
usually four to six birds. The mean (±_s.e.) of
39 counts in the second survey period was 2.6
(±0.37). Until the arrival of a pair of adult Kelp
Gulls in late 1970, two pairs nested on North
Plateau and a third on Black Rock plateau. In
subsequent seasons the Kelp Gulls ousted the
latter, at a time when nesting by the other pairs
was well advanced. The ousted pair then es-
tablished a nest on the southern ‘toe of North
Plateau, on two occasions appropriating a Sil-
ver Gulls nest. The North Plateau pairs were
aggressively territorial, establishing their nests
at least 35 m apart. During the entire span of
14 years these nest sites shifted by only a few
metres. Nesting Silver Gulls were tolerated to
within 3 m. Inter- and intraspecific interactions
were common, and the latter were especially
intense when parents were attending their re-
cently hatched and highly mobile chick. On one
occasion a sitting oystercatcher leapt up, caught
and throttled a recently fledged Silver Gull that
had ventured too near. The Gull was held down
by a beak hold behind its head, the Oyster-
catcher standing motionless with its feet braced
wide apart until the Gull was dead.

In 13 seasons the North Plateau pairs produced
at least 25 clutches (14 x 2 eggs, 5 x 1 egg, 6 x
eggs not visible). On four occasions two clutch-
es were laid in a season, three after early failures,
and in each case a chick was reared to fledging;
in the fourth instance two eggs were laid af-
ter the fledging or loss of a near-fledged chick
(c. 42 days after the first hatching), but the fate of
the second clutch was not observed. In no case
of clutches of two eggs were two chicks reared,

apparently because the first chick to emerge was
moved by the parents and the second egg was
abandoned in the nest — a sequence observed
in two instances. Of the possible maximum pro-
duction of 25 fledged young by the North Pla-
teau pairs only 14 large runners’ were actually
found, partly because the parents were adept at
hiding them in crevices and narrow spaces un-
der boulders where their plumage blended per-
fectly with the black basalt. When we searched
for these runners to band them, a parent would
occasionally resort to a ‘broken wing’ display to
lure the intruder away.

The success of the Black Rock pair was very
difficult to follow, but in the five seasons prior
to being ousted by the Kelp Gulls in 1972 they
hatched at least three chicks. In the seven subse-
quent seasons when they nested on the southern
‘toe of North Plateau only five clutches were seen
(3x2 eggs, 2x1 egg). In the summer of 1973/74
the Kelp Gulls abandoned Black Rock for Seal
Rock and the Oystercatchers reclaimed their old
nest site. They were first seen there on 1 0 January
1974 and four days later the nest contained one
egg. The fate of this nesting was not observed.
For the first four to five days after hatching chicks
were fed small insects and arthropods probed for
by their parents in the mats of noon flower, the
chicks running from one to the other whenever
something was captured. Thereafter chicks were
fed with the flesh of chitons, small limpets, and
univalve gastropods ( Nerita sp.) garnered from
the outer inter-tidal zones of Main Beach, East
Reef and Middle Reef.

Adult Oystercatchers were extremely sensi-
tive to the presence of humans and immediately
vacated a nest if approached to within 50 m.
This is similar to the flight initiation distance
reported for this species by Glover et al. (2011).
Despite great care to minimise disturbance, this
was undoubtedly the cause of some nest failures
as Silver Gulls were quick to plunder an egg and
were suspected of taking at least one exposed
newly hatched chick. It is likely that the poor
success of the Black Rock pair when nesting on
North Plateau was exacerbated by their close
proximity to the field station located only c. 40
m away. One of these runners, banded on North
Plateau 5 January 1977, was later found as a des-
iccated carcass on Forrest Caves beach, Phillip

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Research Reports

Island on 24 April 1987. Another, banded on
North Plateau 4 January 1980, was seen at Long
Island Point near Hastings on 1 August 1981
and was subsequently trapped there on 12 June
1988 and released. Two resident colour-banded
birds in the second survey period were banded
respectively at Flinders (c. 10 km north-east)
two years earlier and in Corner Inlet (c. 125 km
south-east) six years earlier (as a two-year old).

Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles

A pair on Black Rock on 22 January 1968. One
heard by KJC calling during night of 21-22
August 1969.

Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria inter pres

In the first survey, Ruddy Turnstones were ob-
served on all visits except during the winter of
1969. From March to August they were usually
seen in groups of 5 to 10, their numbers then
increasing substantially to about 50 in Novem-
ber to January. A few birds in richly coloured
plumage were seen in April, July, August and
September. In the second part of the survey,
numbers ranged from 0 to 1 1 and averaged two
birds per visit. Turnstones were observed on
only 47% of visits in the second survey period.

Dispersed groups were often seen feeding
along the shoreline at low tide, among weedy
rocks and over beds of cunjevoi Pyura sp. Oc-
casionally small flocks were seen moving about
on, and the slopes above, the Main Beach and
twice on South Plateau among clumps of noon
flower where they appeared to be searching for
insects. Towards evening and during strong
winds they congregated to roost in sheltered
parts of the shore platforms and often among
the fur seals, where they moved about confi-
dently and were totally ignored. Turnstones
were often seen resting in very close proximity
to Pacific Gulls.

Arctic Jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus

Thirteen sightings were logged of one to four
individuals active offshore during spring and
summer — from October to March in the
first survey period. Most often they were no-
ticed in November to January, when pursuing
Silver Gulls returning from Phillip Island or
the Mornington Peninsula with food for their
young.

Fairy Tern Sterna nereis

Two or three birds seen offshore on three occa-
sions by KJC in late December 1965 and a lone
bird on 17 Januaryl966.

Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia

Recorded only once, by KJC on 31 November
1968 feeding offshore. The Tern subsequently
landed on North Plateau, but flew off when
alerted by alarm calls of Silver Gulls.

White-fronted Tern Sterna striata

Commonly seen from late April to mid-Novem-
ber feeding offshore and often diving for small
fish close in to the rocks, in the Seal Pool and in
the shallow landing gutter. Often roosted over-
night on Seal Rock, generally in groups of less
than 10, but occasionally there were 50. They in-
termingled freely with roosting Crested Terns.
On 16 June 1969 White-fronted Terns were seen
diving into a swarm of krill to the south of Black
Rock, where Fairy Prions, and Short-tailed and
Fluttering Shearwaters were also feeding. Speci-
men RW#415 (Museum Victoria), stomach
contained Coastal Krill; subcutaneous fat light
orange in colour. This species was not seen on
or in the vicinity of Seal Rocks during the sec-
ond survey period but has been recorded oc-
casionally along the southern coast of Phillip
Island (Norman 1992) but not in Western Port
between 1991 and 1994 (Dann et al. 2003).

Crested Tern Thalasseus hergii

Before the field station was erected on the South
Plateau in December 1965, 40 nests were found
on a narrow band of noon flower growing at
the cliff edge, and at least eight pairs had nested
on the north-west corner of North Plateau. Af-
ter 1965 all nesting activity was concentrated
on North Plateau, but only 20 nests were estab-
lished. The output of this colony was about 12
young/yr until 1971/72 when the entire nesting
was lost due to unusually heavy seal traffic on
that plateau. In 1972/73 only three nests were
found there, but eight nests were established on
the upper boulder slope of West Beach among
nesting Silver Gulls. During the next four sea-
sons (1974/75 to 1977/78) nesting was confined
to West Beach, but the maximum number did
not exceed six. In 1974/75 and 1977/78 two

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nests were established on the north end of
South Plateau, which had not been visited dur-
ing the period of courtship and nest-making
in October, but occupation of the field station
led to their failure. The last breeding recorded
at Seal Rocks was of six nests in 1978 (Harris
and Bode 1981). In 1994, a large colony became
established at The Nobbies, 2 km north-west,
and numbered 2050 nests by 2001 (Minton et
al. 2001, Chiaradia et al 2002).

Pairs engaging in high spiralling courtship
flights were noted as early as 9 August and as
late as 15 January. Some pairs slowly circled to
heights of well over 300 m, came together and
then plunged, one above the other, in a spec-
tacular, slow-spiralling power-dive to within 10
to 20 m of the sea. Copulations were observed
as early as 7 October and nests with eggs as late
as 17 January. Chicks at the runner stage were
moved to the shore platforms of North Beach
and West Beach where they were protected by
groups of adults, as many as three adults closely
attending a single chick. Parents flying in with a
fish were occasionally harried by Jaegers and on
one occasion an adult with a bulging crop was
pursued by a Kelp Gull. Fish up to c. 8-10 cm in
length were fed to large chicks.

Crested Terns roosted throughout the year on
both islets, but mainly on Seal Rock, usually as a
single aggregation and often with White- fronted
Terns. On Seal Rock their numbers varied errat-
ically from less than 50 to more than 500, and in
general the largest flocks occurred in late spring
and summer. Exceptional concentrations were
noted in 1972, of 1200-1500 on 16 November
and of c. 2000 on 17 December. Roosting terns
preferred the boulder and cobblestone-pebble
areas of Seal Rock and the broad ledges of Black
Rock, their selection depending on the strength
and direction of the prevailing wind. During
south-westerly gales terns congregated to roost
on Main Beach in the lee of the South Plateau,
where they crouched low and adjusted their ori-
entation to any shift in wind direction.

Dead, injured and moribund adult Terns were
found on Seal Rock from time to time and, on
one occasion, an injured bird was attacked by
Silver Gulls.

Pacific Gull Larus pacificus

These birds do not nest on the islets and were
normally were seen resting on North Plateau,
Main Beach and outer rocks, especially on East
Reef. At least one pair of adults was noted on
most visits in the first survey period, common-
ly there were three to five but not more than six.
Counts of immatures varied more, from 2 to 50,
with a tendency for larger numbers in winter.
The maximum count of 50 on 9 February 1979
was of equal numbers of juveniles and imma-
tures. This seasonal variation correlates with
counts made in the vicinity of Sandy Point to
the north (Davis and Reid 1975a). By contrast,
Pacific Gulls (adults and immatures combined)
were seen on only 60% of visits in the second
survey period and never more than six were
seen.

In strong winds Pacific Gulls sought protect-
ed areas, in particular the lower shingle slopes
of Main Beach. They often competed with Sil-
ver Gulls for food items vomited by seals, and
for fresh placentae during the pupping season,
but were more watchful and tentative when in
a close press of seals. Adult birds were seen to
feed on the gastropod Subninella sp., which was
common at the outer edge of the reefs, by drop-
ping the shells from a height of 10 m or so onto
the rocks to break them open.

A juvenile in dark plumage and with a bad-
ly injured wing was seen on Seal Rock on 14
November 1977. It was still alive on 28 March
1979, in sub-adult plumage, having survived by
scavenging among the seals and tide-washed
flotsam.

Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus

Lone adults were recorded on 22 August 1968
and 6 March 1969, and an adult pair arrived on
18 December 1970. They nested the following
month on Black Rock and in all subsequent
summers to 1979, when two additional pairs
established nests. Other pairs were sighted on
29 October 1972 and 12 December 1977 but
did not remain.

For some days after their arrival the found-
ing pair was harassed by Pacific and Silver Gulls
and by one pair of Sooty Oystercatchers, but this
aggression quickly waned. Over the following
eight seasons this pair produced a minimum of

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14 eggs in eight clutches (1x3 eggs, 4x2 eggs
and 3 x eggs not seen) from which 12 chicks
were hatched and seven fledged. The progress
of the 1971/72 nesting on Black Rock was not
observed but a juvenile was seen in flight on 26
February 1972.

In the 1974/75 and 1978/79 seasons the
original pair lost clutches when the nests were
trampled by seals, and although a second nest
mound of noon flower stems was raised nearby
no eggs were laid. In 1973/74 and 1975/76 they
abandoned their first nest (laying was not veri-
fied) and shifted to the other islet. In 1971/72
and 1977/78 a second nest was raised after the
first brood fledged and in the latter season the
first nest was renovated as well, but no eggs
were laid. In January 1979 all three pairs laid,
but two nests (clutch of two eggs in one; others
eggs not seen) were lost due to seal traffic. The
third pair laid three eggs and two young were
fledged. Laying dates varied from 28 October
(estimated) to 13 January (observed), with most
being laid between mid to late November.

Adult Kelp Gulls were dominant in any inter-
action with Silver and Pacific Gulls and routine-
ly ousted a breeding pair of Sooty Oystercatch-
ers from their favoured nest site on Black Rock.
Physical clashes did not occur except for one
instance on 15 November 1977 when a nest-
ing adult killed a recently fledged Silver Gull

Month

Fig. 3. Counts of Kelp Gulls recorded on Seal Rocks
1997 to 2005 by month. Numbers were greater in
spring and summer. The quadratic function is signifi-
cant (r 2 = 0.8). The dashed lines are 95% confidence
limits.

that ventured too near. Caught in a powerful
beak hold behind the head, the young gull was
jerked about violently and thrashed and then
despatched with downward stabbing thrusts to
the body. On 18 January 1973 the pair pursued
and attacked a passing Swamp Harrier.

Kelp Gulls competed with other gulls for frag-
ments of fish and squid vomited by seals, and
for fresh placentae, and occasionally pecked at
fresh seal carcasses. No predation of the eggs or
chicks of other nesting birds was seen.

The mean number of Kelp Gulls frequenting
Seal Rocks in the second survey period was
30.1 (+ s.e. 2.9) and ranged from 1 to 96 birds.
There was some seasonal variation in numbers
with generally higher numbers in spring and
summer (Fig. 3). It was noticeable during win-
ter that Kelp Gulls occurred in greater numbers
across the southern shores of Phillip Island
and on the Mornington Peninsula to the north
(pers. obs.). In 2005 it was estimated that the
number of breeding birds in 2002 was c. 50, and
that pairs had started nesting on the western
end of Phillip Island in 1995 (Dann 2007).

Silver Gull Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae

In the first survey period, this species was
present all year and bred on the plateaux of
both islets, on cliff ledges and amongst boul-
ders on West Beach and Main Beach. The
airspace beneath the floor of the field station
was particularly favoured. Breeding pairs were
estimated at 250 to 300, with no marked fluc-
tuations from year to year. On 30 October 1978
Harris and Bode (1981) counted 192 occupied
nests and 63 new but empty nests on Seal Rock.
A marked post-breeding exodus occurred, with
numbers dropping to as low as 20; however, the
flock size between breeding seasons fluctuated
erratically and occasionally exceeded 600. The
mean number of Silver Gulls frequenting Seal
Rocks in the second survey period was 177.3 (±
s.e. 58.1) and ranged from 0 in August 2002 to
2000 birds in May 1999. Breeding was greatly
reduced in the second survey period with fewer
than 10 nests being found in most years usually
above the field station built in 1979 and a few
isolated nests on Black Rock. Silver Gulls have
bred at the western end of Phillip Island since
1970s (Loyn 1975) and the colony has grown to
about 2500 birds (PD pers. obs).

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The commencement of egg-laying (on South
Plateau) varied by as much as a month (27 July
1968, 21 August 1969, 21 July 1970, 27 August
1971) and the peak of breeding, in terms of
the number of occupied nests, occurred 8-10
weeks later, at about the time the first fledglings
were leaving the nesting area. Clutches were
usually of two or three eggs, in nests formed of
dried noon flower stems and a few feathers.

The fur seal colony provided a supplementary
source of food during the latter part of the nest-
ing season, when large numbers of pregnant
females were ashore to give birth. Placentae
and associated membranes from 2000+ births
were shed between early November and mid-
December, but only about half were thoroughly
scavenged. Silver Gulls were quick to detect a
female seal in labour or any seal showing signs
of vomiting the remains of a previous meal.
Gulls fed eagerly on any partially digested fish
or squid and also on clotted masses of curdled
milk that pups would occasionally vomit if
trodden on by a large breeding male. Experi-
ence of this kind led some gulls to pounce on
freshly voided seal faeces of an unusually pale
cream colour, but they quickly stopped after a
few beakfulls. Ever the opportunists, a group
of gulls was observed avidly to devour a large
mass of c. 80 mature tapeworms discarded after
the dissection of a seals digestive tract - be-
haviour that probably explained why strands of
ripe proglottids were not found in any masses
of soft faeces voided on shore. Individual gulls
were attracted to and pecked at fresh wounds
on fur seals and eagerly fed on clotted blood.

Insects were taken opportunistically. Gulls of-
ten snapped at blowflies Calliphora sp. attracted
to seal carcasses and were adroit at catching
moths Agrotis sp. which appeared in large num-
bers at various times on 17 October 1968, 4
November 1969 and 19 April 1977. They
pounced on moths amongst the noon flower
and pursued them when they swarmed into
the air as high as 100 m. Larvae of the com-
mon cockchafer Adoryphorus couloni were fed
to chicks by parents that followed the spring
ploughing on Phillip Island and Morning-
ton Peninsula. These grubs appeared to be an
important source of food in some years. Un-
defended gull eggs were soon broken and de-
voured by other gulls, as were those of Crested

Terns and Sooty Oystercatchers. Very small
gull chicks that were displaced from the nest
and not defended were pounced on by other
adults, thrashed vigorously and then swal-
lowed; unprotected larger chicks or ‘runners in
down were pursued, buffeted and pecked about
the head until they died.

Inadvertent disturbance by humans and by
the fur seals contributed to this mortality and
probably reinforced the tendency of parents to
move their advanced chicks to the periphery of
the nesting areas.

Silver Gulls were alert to any activity at sea
nearby, flocking to investigate feeding by Crest-
ed and White-fronted Terns or the commotion
caused by a Great White Shark Carcharodon
carcharias preying on a seal at the surface, or a
seal thrashing a large fish. On several occasions
flocks of more than 100 gulls were observed
feeding on surface shoals of small fish.

Apart from cannibalism only two instances
of predation of Silver Gulls were observed —
of an adult gull by an Eastern Barn Owl Tyto
javanica on 5 October 1970, and of a chick by
a Brown Falcon on 17 November 1977. On
two occasions fledglings were killed when they
ventured too close to nests of other species —
by a Kelp Gull on 15 November 1977, and by
a Sooty Oystercatcher on 25 November 1978.
Silver Gulls were observed to harass and mob
predators such as Eastern Barn Owl, Brown
and Peregrine Falcons, White-bellied Sea-Eagle
and Frigatebird, but were tolerant of Kelp and
Pacific Gulls unless they approached occupied
nests or runners.

Blue-winged Parrot Neophema chrysostoma

Two records of lone birds, on 19 March 1968
and 3 November 1969. The dates of these vis-
its accord with the seasonality of sightings at
Sandy Point (Davis and Reid 1975b). Speci-
men RW #454, (Museum Victoria) collected 3
November 1969, female, heavy mesenteric and
subcutaneous fat deposits over abdomen and
base of neck; ovary 8x5 mm, largest follicle 1.3
mm, crop empty.

Pallid Cuckoo Cacomantis pallidus

Seen only once, on North Plateau on 18 March
1968.

16

The Victorian Naturalist

Eastern Barn Owl Tyto javanica

Six records and some prey remains, possibly
representing the activities of three individuals.
A lone bird flew from the broken, stepped west-
ern edge of North Plateau on 10 June 1966 and
settled in a crevice on the north face of Black
Rock plateau. Regurgitated pellets were found
below the south end of South Plateau the next
day. This bird may have remained until at least
13 July, when the fresh remains of a Common
Starling were found, picked clean in precisely
the same manner as were Common Diving-
Petrels taken by Barn Owls at Lady Julia Percy
Island (RMW pers. obs.).

On 20 and 22 August 1970 a Barn Owl was
seen successively at the rear window of the
field station, roosting on Black Rock, and on a
tank stand beside the station. On 15 Septem-
ber a Barn Owl flew from a recess below the
northern point of South Plateau to East Reef,
pursued by Silver Gulls; later it was on Main
Beach directly beneath a steel cable that guyed
the observation tower, incapacitated by a bro-
ken wing. On 5 October the fresh remains of a
Silver Gull, headless and stripped of flesh, were
found on West Beach, indicating another owl
was in residence. This was confirmed two days
later when a large Barn Owl flew from a roost
below the South Plateau observation hide to
Black Rock, pursued by Silver Gulls.

Sacred Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus

One sighting by FTB, of a lone bird on Seal
Rock on 10 November 1970.

Yellow-rumped Ihombill Acanthiza chrysorrhoa

One record on 19 November 1967 of a lone bird
hopping about mats of noon flower on South
Plateau; last seen flying to Black Rock.

Yellow-faced Honeyeater Lichenostomus
chrysops

Lone birds were recorded on 21 December
1968 and 28 October 1975. The first sighting
was of the bird battling against a strong wind
near the field station and the second bird was
seen perched on the roof of the South Plateau
observation hide. Specimen: RW#361, 21 De-
cember 1968 (Museum Victoria ), female,
ovary c. 5 mm in length, largest follicle 1 mm;
stomach contained four tiny flower(?) buds c. 2
mm in length.

Research Reports

White-eared Honeyeater Lichenostomus
leucotis

One record of a lone bird flying about the eastern
cliff face of South Plateau on 16 January 1968.

Yellow-tufted Honeyeater Lichenostomus
melanops

One record of a lone bird active about mats of
noon flower near the rear of the field station on
15 May 1968. Closely observed with binocu-
lars from a distance of about 6 m by KJC, FTB,
WMB and RMW.

White-plumed Honeyeater Lichenostomus
penicillatus

One record of a lone bird perched on the flying
fox tripod, South Plateau, on 18 May 1971.

White-fronted Chat Epthianura albifrons

One record on 18 October 2000 on South Plateau.

Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina novae-
hollandiae

Single sighting of a lone bird on 19 April 1972,
perched on the tower guys for about an hour.

Grey Shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica

Sighted once only on South Plateau on 27 April
1966.

Dusky Woodswallow Artamus cyanopterus

One sighting on 26 April 1966 by WMB of a lone
bird perched on a ladder beside the door of the
field station at dusk. It was captured after dark,
found to be fit and was released next morning.

Raven Corvus sp.

One record of a flock of 12 birds flying past about
50 m offshore on 26 February 1971 and heading in
a southerly direction. As none vocalised, identifi-
cation to species was not possible. Presumed to be
the locally common Little Raven C. mellori.

Satin Flycatcher Myiagra cyanoleuca

Recorded in most years in the first survey peri-
od during calm weather. The 27 records fall into
two distinct seasonal groups: late February to
March and November to mid-December, with
a single record on 17 May of a female on West
Beach. Pairs were seen twice in November,
twice in December and once in March; the 23
other sightings were of lone birds. About half
the sightings were of males. These flycatchers
were always observed on or near noon flower
on the edges and cliff faces of the South Pla-

Vol 130 (1)2013

17

Research Reports

teau, where they actively pursued insects. This
species bred at Sandy Point (14 km north-east)
in December 1962, 1963 and 1964 (Davies and
Reid 1975c).

Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca

One record on 23 November 1965 of a lone bird
on Black Rock.

Rufous Fantail Rhipidura rufifrons

Seen once by WMB, on 13 December 1970,
perched on the steps of the field station. WMB
noted its white throat and broadly fanned rus-
set tail. Davis and Reid (1975c) noted this spe-
cies to be a rare visitor to Sandy Point.

Grey Fantail Rhipidura albiscapa

All the 40 records came from the first survey
period and fell into two clear seasonal groups
— autumn visits (mid-March to May) of groups
of up to eight birds, and spring visits (mid-
August to mid-December) of individuals and,
rarely, pairs. Arrivals were always associated
with calm weather and the fantails activities
were restricted to mats of noon flower on the
plateaux and cliff faces, where they searched for
flies and small moths. Usually, they left before
the weather changed for the worse.

Willie Wagtail Rhipidura leocophrys

Two records of lone birds, on 17 August 1969
(KJC) active on South Plateau, and from 26
to 30 May 1976 when one was ‘marooned’ on
the islet by very strong north-westerly winds.
It confined its activities to the lee side of South
Plateau, mainly about the base of the cliff.

Flame Robin Petroica phoenicea

Eighteen sightings during autumn on seven oc-
casions during the first survey period — in mid
to late March in 1966, 1968, 1969, 1972, 1973
and 1977, and on 13 and 14 May 1969. Gener-
ally, up to seven birds were seen at any one time
over a period of one to seven days, and about
three in four were in drab plumage. A dramatic
influx to Seal Rock occurred on 19 August 1969
when at least 18 birds were in view (11 males,
7 in drab plumage). This was apparently part
of the pre-breeding migration (see Davis and
Reid 1975c). Specimens RW#434 female and
#435 male, collected 20 April 1966, both very
fat, testis of male 1.5 mm in length (Museum
Victoria).

Australian Reed- Warbler Acrocephalus aus-
tralis

Three records of lone birds active about the cliff
faces of South Plateau, on 9 January 1969, 24
November 1969 and 17 June 1970. Specimens —
RW #365, 9 January 1969 and RW #48, 17 Janu-
ary 1970 (Museum Victoria). The latter had
bright yellow subcutaneous fat associated with
the major feather tracts, and cream-coloured
visceral fat; testis 3.3 mm in length.

Brown Songlark Cincloramphus cruralis

Recorded twice on South Plateau in mid-sum-
mer, on 14 January 1969 and 17 January 1970.
The first bird was feeding on small butterflies,
Australian Painted Lady Vanessa kershawi that
had appeared in considerable numbers on the
previous day, apparently from Phillip Island via
a steady easterly breeze. Specimen: RW#369
(Museum Victoria), 14 January 1969, testis 1.5
mm in length; stomach contents remains of V
kershawi, an orange ichneumon wasp Netelia
sp. and small flies.

Silvereye Zosterops lateralis
Nine sightings in the first survey period be-
tween October and May of one or two birds ac-
tive about clumps of noon flower on the Seal
Rocks plateaux. On two occasions, 2-4 Novem-
ber 1969 and 12-13 April 1973, repeated sight-
ings may have been of the same individual or
stragglers of larger groups passing through on
pre- and post-breeding movements (see Davis
and Reid 1975c).

Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena

A resident species, nesting in cavities and caves
in the cliffs of South Plateau and Black Rock.
One to two pairs seen throughout the year,
usually skimming low over the upper beach
slopes and plateaux. Very young nestlings were
found on 2 November 1967 and 2 November
1969, and had fledged by the end of that month.
Flocks of swallows were seen in December (lx
9), January (1 x 30+), March (3 x 12+, 8, 10)
and May (1 x 6).

Common Blackbird Turdus merula

Lone birds were sighted on Seal Rock on 21
April 1966 and 30 March 1979.

Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris

Small numbers bred regularly on Seal Rock,

18

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

pairs being noted as early as mid-August and
nestlings being fed as late as 20 December, sug-
gesting that several clutches were produced in a
season. Only eight nests containing three to five
eggs were found in well-hidden natural sites —
in rock piles, in deep crevices in the cliffs, and
one was behind a festoon of Ruby Saltbush on
the cliff near the South Plateau observation
hide; elsewhere nests were constructed in the
roof ventilation shafts of the field station and in
a corner of the South Plateau observation hide.

Parents actively foraged in clumps of noon
flower and obtained an abundance of blowflies
and their maggots from decomposing seal car-
casses. Starlings were very wary of Silver Gulls,
especially when gathering food in their vicinity,
but on one occasion a parent defended a chick
exposed to a threatening gull by landing on its
back and pecking at its head.

Large flocks roosted on the cliffs overnight
throughout the year, usually arriving at dusk
from the direction of Phillip Island in small
groups and separate compact flocks of 50-100
birds; occasionally a massed flock of 500+ birds
was seen. Numbers appeared relatively simi-
lar between the two survey periods. As they
approached these large flocks broke up into
smaller groups which flew down at surprising
speed straight onto the cliff faces. Incoming
starlings were not deterred by strong winds and
were often seen labouring against gale-force
south-westerlies. A succession of small groups
departed at or soon after dawn. Predation by a
Barn Owl and a Nankeen Kestrel were noted.

Common Myna Sturnus tristis

A lone bird was seen on South Plateau on 25
November 1976 and a pair next day in the same
vicinity.

House Sparrow Passer domesticus

A group of about five sparrows was seen on
South Plateau near the field station on 10 June
1966, and lone birds were seen at the islet on 16
November 1966 and 16 November 1967.

Australasian Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae

Six records of lone birds between mid-October
and mid-April, active about the Seal Rocks pla-
teaux and on Main Beach.

European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis

Five records of 1-4 birds flying over or past

Vol 130 (1)2013

the islets, on 19 and 26 April 1966, 16 October
1968, 12 November 1968 and 26 July 1969.

Discussion

Although Seal Rocks lies a mere 1.5 km from
Phillip Island, in character it is truly an island of
Bass Strait. It is exposed to the full force of any
gales and to the prevailing ocean swells from
the south-west, which rise and break heavily
around the two islets, and on occasion com-
pletely sweep the outer reefs and lower shore
platforms. Powerful currents associated with
the tidal flushing of Western Port contribute to
turbulence of the sea to the north and east of
Seal Rock. All the common Bass Strait seabirds
adapted to these conditions were frequently
seen in the waters adjacent to Phillip Island.

Seventy-five native and six exotic species of
birds, including 21 native passerines, were ob-
served at Seal Rocks or nearby. Six species were
recorded breeding — Crested Tern, Silver Gull,
Sooty Oystercatcher, Welcome Swallow, Com-
mon Starling and, for the first time in Victoria,
Kelp Gull.

The variety of land birds recorded on Seal
Rocks in the first survey period was surprisingly
high, given the exposed nature and relative ste-
rility of the terrain; however, the strait between
Seal Rock and Phillip Island is narrow, all the
species recorded there are common in the re-
gion, and most are wide-ranging seasonally or
undertake significant north-south migrations.
In each case the dates of sightings at Seal Rocks
correspond with the timing of seasonal move-
ments by the species concerned. Of particular
interest is the clear evidence of departure and
arrival of several small passerines known to mi-
grate across Bass Strait— Satin Flycatcher, Grey
Fantail and Flame Robin.

Changes over the 40-year period
There are a number of differences between the
numbers and species of birds recorded in the
first period of intensive observation ( 1966—
1972) and the second period (1997-2005).
Many fewer pelagic seabirds, Pacific Gulls and
land birds were recorded in the second period
and there were substantial changes in the num-
bers of breeding Crested Terns, Silver Gulls and
Kelp Gulls. A comparison of the abundance
and diversity of pelagic seabirds between the
two periods is invalid as observations were not

19

Research Reports

made out to sea in the second period and hence
relatively few seabirds were recorded. The pre-
ponderance of sightings of passerines and oth-
er land birds on South Plateau was no doubt a
reflection of the activities centred on the field
station there, which had the effect of deterring
visits by seals, but may also have been related
to the more extensive growth of noon flower
on the plateau and its cliffs than elsewhere
and the better shelter provided on its eastern
face. With the removal of the field station on
South Plateau in 1979, came much greater fur
seal activity there and consequent destruction
of noon flower areas on the top of the plateau.
After 1997, vegetation was limited to a few sites
inaccessible to seals on the sides of the plateau.
This, together with the fact that the length of
visits was substantially shorter in the second
survey period meant that relatively few passer-
ines were recorded there in later years.

The main changes to the breeding bird popu-
lations have been the movement and expansion
of the breeding colonies of Crested Terns and
Silver Gulls to adjacent parts of nearby Phil-
lip Island and the arrival and expansion of the
breeding Kelp Gull population. Crested Terns
no longer breed on Seal Rocks; they have in-
creased enormously in number locally and
approximately 4000 birds breed on the Lit-
tle Nobby (2 km east) (Chiaradia et al. 2002).
The number of breeding Silver Gulls on Seal
Rocks has decreased significantly over the
past 40 years. Since the early 1980s there has
been a consolidation of most of the Silver Gull
colonies on the western end of Phillip Island to
the two islets that make up ‘The Nobbies and
the adjoining area of Point Grant. Disturbance
from the increasing number of seals and Kelp
Gulls may have been factors in both of these
species moving from Seal Rocks and the sub-
sequent increase may have been encouraged
by the progressive elimination of foxes Vulpes
vulpes in the western half of Phillip Island.

Kelp Gulls have also increased substantially
at Seal Rocks since their arrival in 1968. Ap-
proximately 80 birds now breed there and they
have successfully colonised a number of sites
on nearby Phillip Island (Dann 2007) and on
Lady Julia Percy Island (Dann et al 2004). The
expansion of Kelp Gulls at Seal Rocks may have

been associated with the expansion of fur seal
numbers which, on one hand has reduced the
number of suitable breeding sites, but on the
other hand has increased the amount of food
available in the forms of vomited food remains
and placentae. In regard to the latter, the ag-
gregate mass of placentae produced during the
November-December pupping season would
be at least 2000 kg and this represents an im-
portant source of high-quality protein for the
gulls. However, many placentae are left un-
scavenged during the peak period of pupping,
apparently because supply far exceeds demand.
On the other hand, retching seals are always ea-
gerly and competitively attended by gulls, and
any ejected food items immediately snatched
up by one or other of the three species of gull
that occur on the islets.

Acknowledgements

The seal project was initiated and supported by gen-
erous grants from the MA Ingram Trust. KJ Chip-
perfields interest in birds and his remarkably keen
eyesight gave impetus to this study and stimulated
the other team members to be alert and to record
sightings. Collectively their observations formed the
major part of this report. Janey Jackson painstakingly
searched all the diaries and field journals to compile
lengthy species dossiers summarised here. Victorian
Wader Study Group provided details of banded oys-
tercatchers seen and Roger Kirkwood organised the
field trips in the second period, sharing his bird ob-
servations and commenting on a draft of this paper.
Duncan Sutherland kindly prepared Figures 1 and
3 and assisted with the binomial generalised linear
model.

Note

1 Fred Baum (FTB), 1965-1979; Kevin Chipperfield
(KJC), 1965-1970; Bill Bren (WMB), 1967-1973;
Keith Cherry, 1970-1979; and Steve Craig, 1973-
1977.

References

Chiaradia A, Dann P, Jessop, R and Collins P (2002) Diet of
Crested Tern ( Sterna bergii) chicks at Phillip Island, Victo-
ria, Australia. Emu 102 , 367-371.

Christidis L and Boles WE (2008) Systematics and Taxonomy
of Australian Birds. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Vic).
Dann P, Arnould JPY, Jessop R and Healy M (2003) Distribu-
tion and abundance of seabirds in Western Port, Victoria.
Emu 103 , 307-313.

Dann P, Mackay M, Kirkwood R and Menkhorst P (2004)
Notes on the birds of Lady Julia Percy Island in western
Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 121 , 59-66.

Dann P (2007) The Population Status of the Kelp Gull Larus
dominicanus in Victoria. Corella 31 , 73-75.

Davis WA and Reid AJ (1975a) Western Port Report No. 1,
Part 3. The Victorian Naturalist 92, 59-70.

Davis WA and Reid AJ (1975b) Western Port Report No. 1,

20

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

Part 4. The Victorian Naturalist 92, 121-123.

Davis WA and Reid, AJ (1975c) Western Port Report No. 1,
Part 4 - continued. The Victorian Naturalist 92, 163-171.

Deagle BE, Kirkwood R and Jarman SN (2009) Analysis of
Australian fur seal diet by pyrosequencing prey DNA in
faeces. Molecular Ecology 18, 2022-2038.

Glover HK, Weston MA, Maguire GS, Miller KK and Chris-
tie BA (2011) Towards ecologically meaningful and social-
ly acceptable buffers: Response distances of shorebirds in
Victoria, Australia, to human disturbance. Landscape and
Urban Planning 1 103, 326-334.

Green RH (1973) Albatross Island. Records of the Queen Vic-
toria Museum 51, 1-17.

Harris MP and Bode KG (1981) Populations of Little Pen-
guins, Short-tailed Shearwaters and other seabirds on Phil-
lip Island, Victoria, 1978. Emu 81, 20-28.

Kirkwood R, Gales R, Terauds A, Arnould JPY, Pemberton
P, Shaughnessy PD, Mitchell AT and Gibbens J (2005) Pup
production and population trends of the Australian fur
seal. Marine Mammal Science 21, 260-282.

Loyn, RL (1975) Report on the avifauna of Westernport Bay.
Project report; Westernport Bay Environmental Study,
Melbourne; Ministry of Conservation, Victoria.

Minton C, Jessop R, Collins P and Graham D (2001) Tern
breeding and banding 1999/2000 and 2000/2001. Victorian
Wader Study Group Bulletin 24, 55-56.

Norman FI (1992) Counts of Little Penguins Eudyptula mi-
nor in Port Phillip Bay and off Southern Phillip Island, Vic-
toria, 1986-1988. Emu 91, 287-301.

Page B, McKenzie J and Goldsworthy SD (2005) Dietary re-
source partitioniong among sympatric New Zealand and
Australian fur seals. Marine Ecology Progress Series 293,
283-302.

R Development Core Team (2012) A language and
environment for statistical computing, R Founda-
tion for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL:
http://www.R-project.org/.

Shaughnessy PD (1978) Cape fur seals preying on seabirds.
Cormorant 5, 31.

Warneke RM (1966) Seals of Westernport. Victorias
Resources 5, 44-46.

Warneke RM (1982) The distribution and abundance of seals
in the Australasian Region, with summaries of biology and
current research. In Mammals in the Seas. FAO Fisheries
Series No. 5, Volume 4. pp. 431-475 (Food & Agriculture
Organisation: Rome)

Warneke RM (2003) Seals at Seal Rocks, Western Port, and
in Bass Strait, before and after the Baudin Expeditions visit
in 1802. In Le Naturaliste in Western Port 1802-2002 - Two
Hundred Years of Change. Proceedings of a seminar held at
Cranbourne, Victoria, 13th and 14th April 2002, pp. 77-98.
Ed N and P McWhirter, JL Sagliocco and J Southwood.
(Department of Infrastructure/Mornington Peninsula
Shire: Melbourne/Cranbourne)

Received 20 October 201 1; accepted 13 September 2012

One Hundred Years Ago

Excursion to Phillip Island
BY JOSEPH GABRIEL

I am indebted to my co-leader, Dr. Brooke Nicholls, for the following notes on the bird-life of the outing.
He says “As the result of several trips to Phillip Island just sixty species of birds have been recorded, but
of these sixteen are sea or shore birds, leaving forty-four as residents of the island. These correspond very
closely with the total of thirty-six species recorded in the Naturalist of December, 1911 (xxviii., p. 149), for
the Bass Valley by Mr. A. W. Milligan and myself at Easter, 1911. The Bass Valley, it may be mentioned, is
situated on the eastern side of Western Port, and at no great distance from Ph illip Island. However, as each
of our visits to the island and to the Bass Valley was made during the Easter holdiays, observations at other
periods of the year would doubtless add to the lists. The absence of the Spotted Ground-bird, Cinclosoma
punctatum, Lath., from the Phillip Island list, and its inclusion in that of the Bass Valley, is perhaps the
most interesting result of the comparison, and, while this bird has not yet been recorded for the islands
of Bass Strait, it occurs in Tasmania. The presence of the Emu-Wren, Stipiturus malachurus , Shaw, the
Orange-tipped Pardalote, Pardalotus assimilis , Ramsay, and the Mistletoe-bird, Dicaeum hirundinaceum,
Shaw, upon the island is also of interest. Of the sea-birds found upon the island, the Short-tailed Petrel, or
“Mutton-bird,” Puffinus brevicaudus , Gld., and the Little Penguin, Eudyptula minor, Forst., bulk largest in
importance. Both these birds are diminishing in numbers every year, and their rookeries are being gradu-
ally thinned out. It will be a surprise to many members of the Club to learn that the penguin is not upon
the list of birds protected for some portion of the year. As Phillip Island is practically the last stronghold
near the mainland of the Mutton-bird and the penguin, it is time they were afforded full protection in this
locality. During the excursion some interesting observations were recorded regarding the penguins. The
accompanying plate shows the nest of a pair of these birds, containing a young bird. The nest was some 500
yards inland from the sea, and placed high upon the cliff, amongst the tussocks. There were two openings
to the burrow, which is unusual. In the foreground of the picture will be seen numbers of feathers scattered
in front of the young bird. These are the shed feathers of the second down stage. During recent years it has
been found that, many birds, especially penguins and petrels, shed two stages of down prior to acquiring
the adult plumage. In the penguin the first down is of a fine, silky, hair-like structure. The young bird in
the photograph had donned the adult plumage, which is attained prior to its leaving the nest and entering
the sea.”

From The Victorian Naturalist XXX, pp. 33-34, June 12, 1913

Vol 130 (1) 2013

21

Research Reports

Sleeping aggregations of bees in relation to the risk of fire at their
roosting sites in a forested, suburban landscape in eastern Australia

PJ Kubiak

PO Box 439, Ryde, NSW 1680, Australia

Abstract

Sleeping aggregations of at least 13 bee species (from the families Halictidae, Apidae, Colletidae and Meg-
achilidae) were observed in the forested and fire-prone landscape of the Lane Cove River valley, in suburban,
northern Sydney, NSW, Australia, during the years 2002-2012. Bees were often found roosting at sites subjec-
tively assessed as having a lower risk of being burnt. The fire risk of the observed sleeping aggregation sites
may have been reduced by bees: 1. roosting in smaller vegetation patches, separated by a clearing from larger,
nearby areas of vegetation; or 2. roosting in areas of vegetation recently burnt by fire and therefore at a reduced
risk of burning; or 3. roosting at or near the edges of vegetation, giving them a chance to escape into adjacent
cleared areas, if a fire arrived when there was enough light for the bees to see and fly away; or 4. roosting at
or near the edges of tracks or trails, which might act as fire breaks in the event of lower intensity fires; or 5.
using combinations of some of the above four ‘strategies’. This study suggests that sleeping aggregations of
bees in this fire-prone area generally appeared to have a tendency to occupy roosting sites that were at a lower
risk of being burnt, or sites that probably provided more opportunities for the bees to escape an approaching
fire. There are a few indications in the published literature that some bee and wasp species in other fire-prone
regions of the world may also have a tendency to occupy lower fire risk roosting sites. ( The Victorian Naturalist
130 (1)2013,22-36).

Keywords: bee, fire, sleeping aggregation, communal roost, wasp

Introduction

Communal roosting has been observed in a
number of insect groups (reviewed by Yackel
Adams 1999), including butterflies (Lepidop-
tera) (Mallet 1986; Finkbeiner et al. 2012),
bees and wasps (Hymenoptera) (see references
below), dragonflies (Odonata) (Corbet 1999),
beetles (Coleoptera) (Pearson and Anderson
1985; Webb 1994), flies (Diptera) (Allee 1927)
and owlflies (Neuroptera) (Gomes-Filho 2000).
Communal roosting has also been recorded
for harvestmen (Opiliones) (Donaldson and
Grether 2007).

The males (and occasionally females) of soli-
tary bee species have been observed often gath-
ering in the evening to sleep together at night,
in both Australia and worldwide (Rau and Rau
1916; Rayment 1935; Linsley 1958; Evans and
Linsley 1960; Linsley 1962; Michener 1974;
Houston 1984; O’Toole and Raw 1991; Dollin
et al. 2000; Alves-dos-Santos et al. 2009; and see
images posted on the internet, e.g. www.aus-
traliannativebees.com). Similar behaviour has
also often been observed in male and female
wasps (Banks 1902; Bradley 1908; Rau and Rau
1916; Rau 1938; Evans and Linsley 1960; Lins-
ley 1962; Evans and Gillaspy 1964; Callan 1984;

O’Neill 2001; Evans and O’Neill 2007). The
term generally applied to communal roosting
in bees and wasps is sleeping aggregation’. Male
bees can form loose or dense sleeping aggrega-
tions, occasionally consisting of several spe-
cies and ranging from a few bees to hundreds
of individuals (Rayment 1935; Michener 1974;
O’Toole and Raw 1991). Sometimes female
bees may also be found sleeping near the males
(Rayment 1935; Linsley 1962; Michener 1974).
Typically, however, the females of most solitary
bee species spend the night in nests, whereas
the males of various species sleep together in
communal roosts (Linsley 1958; Evans and Lin-
sley 1960).

Bee sleeping aggregations tend to form to-
wards the end of the day and, weather permit-
ting, disband again the next morning (Evans
and Linsley 1960; Linsley 1962; Alcock 1998).
Roosting sites may be used by groups of male
bees on successive nights for prolonged periods
and the same sites are sometimes used by fol-
lowing generations of male bees in subsequent
years (Evans and Linsley 1960; Linsley 1962;
Alcock 1998; Wcislo 2003).

22

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

The most common type of sleeping aggre-
gation probably involves male bees attaching
themselves, either by the jaws and/or with
their legs, to the stems or leaves of living or
dead plants. Less commonly, males of various
bee species may form sleeping aggregations in
flowers, in communal burrows, under bark, in
crevices or cracks, on seed pods and in bird
nests (Rayment 1935; Linsley 1958; Cazier and
Linsley 1963; Linsley and Cazier 1972; Raw
1976; Maynard 1991; O’Toole and Raw 1991;
Azevedo and Faria 2007). In denser aggrega-
tions some of the bees may rest on top of each
other, without contacting the substrate (Cazier
and Linsley 1963). One of the intriguing aspects
of these sleeping aggregations is that, whilst
some male bees may compete aggressively with
each other for mates during the daytime, the
same individuals can be capable of peacefully
roosting together at night (Raw 1976; O’Toole
and Raw 1991).

The reason(s) for the formation of bee and
wasp sleeping aggregations have apparently
not been well understood (Rau and Rau 1916;
Evans and Linsley 1960; Michener 1974; Dol-
lin et al 2000; Wcislo 2003; Alves-dos-Santos
et al. 2009; Matthews and Matthews 2010). A
number of researchers have put forward pos-
sible explanations for this phenomenon, often
focusing on protection from predators and/or
on thermoregulatory benefits (Rayment 1935;
Rayment 1956; Evans and Linsley 1960; Linsley
and Cazier 1972; Freeman and Johnston 1978;
Callan 1984; Alcock 1998; Silva et al. 2011). A
social function was suggested as a possible rea-
son for sleeping aggregations in Steniolia obli-
qua wasps (Crabronidae) by Evans and Gillaspy
(1964). However, it would appear that none of
these explanations has been definitely proven
(see Yackel Adams 1999, for a discussion of the
possible function(s) and adaptive significance of
communal roosting in bees and other insects).
Similar and additional explanations have been
suggested to account for aggregative behaviour
in a wide range of animal species (Allee 1927;
Ward and Zahavi 1973; Stephens and Suther-
land 1999; Stephens et al. 1999; Marzluff et al.
1996; Bell et al. 2007; Grether and Donaldson
2007; Finkbeiner et al. 2012).

Matthews and Matthews (2010) considered
that sleeping aggregations of bees are not in-

Vol 130 (1) 2013

ternally organised and do not involve co-op-
erative behaviour. However, it is possible that
such aggregations might be an early step along
the path towards the more co-operative behav-
iour of complex insect societies, as indicated by
Rau and Rau (1916) and Rayment (1956). Ag-
gregation pheromones may be involved in the
formation of sleeping aggregations in bees and
wasps (see Freeman and Johnston 1978; Alcock
1998; Wcislo 2003; Silva et al. 2011). Aggrega-
tion pheromones have been reported for a di-
verse range of non-social arthropods, including
a few species of Hymenoptera ( Wertheim et al.
2005).

Fire is important in shaping many terrestrial
ecosystems in Australia and worldwide. Some
researchers have studied the effects of fire on
bee communities (Potts et al. 2003; Moretti et
al. 2009; Grundel et al. 2010) and on individual
bee species (Stow et al. 2007; Maynard and Rao
2010; Cane and Neff 2011).

The aim of this current study is to explore
whether there might be a relationship between
the roosting sites of bee sleeping aggregations
and the risk of fire at those sites in the bushland
of northern Sydney.

Study area

Observations for this study were made in the
Lane Cove River valley of suburban northern
Sydney, NSW, Australia. Surviving natural veg-
etation in the study area includes open-forest,
tall forest, woodland, heathland, rainforest,
riparian shrubland, mangrove forest, rushland
and saltmarsh (Clarke and Benson 1987; Ben-
son and Howell 1990; Benson and Howell 1994;
Martyn 2010). Much of the surviving bushland
in the Lane Cove River area is sclerophyllous,
is situated on sandstone and has been broadly
described by Keith (2004) as the Sydney Coast-
al Dry Sclerophyll Forests. This bushland has
undergone varying degrees of fragmentation
and the majority of the Lane Cove River catch-
ments natural vegetation has been cleared, for
timber, agriculture and subsequently for sub-
urban development, which has intensified in
recent years. A more or less contiguous band
of bushland survives along the course of the
river and some of its tributaries. The largest
areas of native vegetation occur in the upper
reaches. Introduced weed species frequently

23

Research Reports

dominate the study areas watercourses and also
disturbed places, such as bushland edges. Even
so, the study area still has a high diversity of na-
tive plant species.

Much of the vegetation in this study area could
be described as ‘fire-prone’, in the sense that it
is likely to be burnt quite frequently. The sclero-
phyllous vegetation is the most ‘fire-prone’, but
areas containing rainforest species, mangroves,
rushland and saltmarsh may also be burnt
under extreme weather conditions. However,
some patches of sclerophyllous bushland in the
study area may escape being burnt for relatively
long periods of time. Arson and planned fires
set by bushland managers (for the purposes of
hazard reduction and ecological management)
are probably the two most common causes of
bushfire in the Lane Cove River area in recent
times. Occasionally, large wildfires have swept
through the valley, e.g. in January 1994. Such
fires can reach high intensities, depending on
fuel levels in the bushland and weather condi-
tions at the time of burning. Smaller bushfires
occur fairly frequently in the Lane Cove River
valley.

Methods

In the years 2002-2012 some bushland areas
in the Lane Cove River valley were searched
for sleeping aggregations of bees. Generally,
searches were conducted in the late afternoon.
The first aggregation was found by chance in
2002, when I was not looking for roosting bees.
The pattern of searching tended to be biased
towards looking along walking tracks, serv-
ice trails and the edges of bushland because
such places are easier to search. I attempted to
counteract this bias by also searching bushland
away from tracks and trails. Narrow tracks sur-
rounded by thick, unburnt bushland were also
searched and these were considered to be a very
high fire risk situation for any bees that might
have been found roosting along them. Several
aggregations were found in a suburban garden
in the vicinity of the Lane Cove River, located
well away from the nearest bushland. A few bees
(from eight species) were taken from a handful
of the observed aggregations and sent for iden-
tification to Michael Batley, who also identified
some bees from photographs. However, the
bee species in the majority of the sleeping ag-

gregations were tentatively identified (without
capturing the bees) by consulting Dollin et al.
(2000) and by referring to the identifications,
provided by Michael Batley, of similar looking
bees. Some bees were not identified and these
are grouped together as ‘unidentified species’
in Table 1. The number of bees in the smaller
aggregations was counted, whilst bee numbers
were estimated for larger aggregations.

The fire risk of each roosting site was subjec-
tively assessed, taking into account character-
istics such as the proximity and density of ad-
jacent vegetation, the amount of leaf litter and
other fuels present and the length of time since
the last fire. Other factors that could potentially
have modified the risk of fire to the bees were
also noted, including whether the sleeping ag-
gregation was situated on the edge of the bush-
land area, or next to a service trail or walking
track. Roosting sites were given a subjective fire
risk rating, ranging from very low to very high.
Even when rain had recently fallen at a roosting
site, the fire risk was assessed on the basis of
what the risk would have been at the site under
dry conditions. It was considered that, even in
wetter periods, bushland could dry out quite
quickly in the event of a run of successive hot,
dry days without rainfall.

Results

Observations of bee sleeping aggregations
made during this study are summarised in
Table 1 . At least 1 3 bee species (from the families
Halictidae, Apidae, Colletidae and Megachili-
dae) were observed forming communal roosts.
In some years more effort was put into search-
ing for sleeping aggregations than in other years
and this may largely account for variations in
the numbers of aggregations found in different
years. Generally, the number of bees found in
roosts tended to peak in late spring to early or
mid-summer. Sometimes sleeping aggregations
persisted into late summer or autumn, but the
numbers of bees aggregating at those times of
the year were generally smaller. Of the small
number of bees taken for identification, all were
found to be males (M. Batley pers. comms.).
Species from all of the bee families occurring
in the study area were observed forming sleep-
ing aggregations. Communal roosts of bees in
the family Halictidae were the most frequently

24

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Vol 130 (1) 2013

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Family / Species Date(s) of Aggregation Roosting substrate Fire risk of roost site

aggregation size (subjectively assessed);

(month & year) risk modifying factors

Research Reports

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28

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

observed and, within this family, bees of the
Lipotriches flavoviridis species group (probably
C L. excellent) were most often seen aggregating
to roost together at night.

Bees were found roosting mostly on veg-
etation, including living grasses, sedges, herbs,
shrubs and trees. Also, some bees roosted on
the skeletons of dead plants or on dead twigs
attached to living plants. One aggregation of
Lipotriches australica spent some time roost-
ing on a wire mesh fence. Bees roosted mostly
at a height of less than two metres and often
less than one metre above ground level. A few
mixed aggregations, comprising several species,
were observed, but most of the sleeping aggre-
gations consisted of a single species. The major-
ity of the observed sleeping aggregations were
compact or dense, that is to say that most of the
bees in each aggregation slept in close proximity
to each other, often resting in contact with one
or more of the other bees at the roost. Some of
the sleeping aggregations apparently lasted for
a longer time than others. However, some ag-
gregations were observed for only one or a few
days, so the actual duration of those aggrega-
tions was not determined. Also, the initial for-
mation of an aggregation was rarely observed,
so most of the aggregations probably existed for
some time before they were first detected.

Bees often roosted in places that were appar-
ently at a lower risk of being burnt than many
other potential roosting sites in the surround-
ing landscape. Some of the bees formed sleeping
aggregations in smaller patches of vegetation
that were separated by a clearing from larger,
nearby areas of denser bushland. For exam-
ple, in December 2006 a sleeping aggregation
of Lipotriches australica (Halictidae) (see front
cover) was found on a relatively small patch of
herbaceous weeds (Fig. 1) that was separated
from the nearby larger area of bushland by a
mowed, grassy clearing. The nearby open-forest
had not been burnt for many years and no bees
could be found roosting in this relatively high
fire risk bushland. Another example occurred
in December 2007 when a small aggregation
of Lipotriches flavoviridis (species group) bees
(Fig. 2) roosted on Plantago lanceolata , near the
base of a remnant eucalypt (Fig. 3), separated
from the nearby, dense bushland by a mowed

grassy area. Other similar examples included
the aggregation of Lipotriches fortior found
roosting on an exotic conifer in January/Febru-
ary 2011, separated from bushland by a cleared
area and also several aggregations of ?Lasioglos-
sum peraustrale (Halictidae) that roosted on
trees separate from nearby bushland.

Bees sometimes roosted in areas of recently
burnt vegetation located close to areas of un-
burnt bushland. For example, in November /
December 2002 an aggregation of Megachile
ferox (Megachilidae) bees roosted on the edge
of an area of open-forest that had been burnt by
a small fire approximately seven months earlier.
The fire risk of this roosting site was relatively
low because sufficient time had not elapsed
since the recent fire for fuel loads to build up
again. While M. ferox were roosting at this site, a
wildfire burnt a larger area of the nearby adjoin-
ing forest, much of which had not been burnt
for a long time. This fire burnt to within several
hundred metres of where the bees were roost-
ing. Megachile ferox continued to roost at the
same site for several weeks after the occurrence
of the nearby wildfire.

When bees roosted in places of higher fire
risk they were often found at or near the edges
of the bushland. This positioning may have giv-
en them the chance to escape into the adjacent
cleared areas in the event of a fire, provided
that such a bushfire occurred when there was
sufficient light available and the bees were alert
enough to fly away. Bees sometimes roosted
on or near the edge of walking tracks. Some of
these tracks could have acted as fire breaks in
the event of lower intensity fires.

The apparent tendency to roost in lower fire
risk locations may have varied somewhat be-
tween species. For example, some of the small-
er bee species apparently tended to roost more
frequently in places with a relatively higher risk
of being burnt. However, more observations
would be required to confirm whether this is
generally the case. No bees were observed form-
ing sleeping aggregations at sites considered
to be at a very high risk of being burnt, even
though narrow tracks that had thick bushland
growing on either side of them were searched
and some areas within denser vegetation were
also searched.

Vol 130 (1) 2013

29

Research Reports

Fig. 1 . Lipotriches australica roosting site, December 2006 (bees are on band of weeds in the right
foreground).

Discussion

These observations of sleeping aggregations
over a period of a decade indicate that, in this
fire-prone study area in south-eastern Aus-
tralia, bees generally appear to occupy roosting
sites with a lower risk of burning. Many other
researchers have observed sleeping aggrega-
tions of bees and wasps. Some of these studies
were conducted in fire-prone landscapes and
provide a few indications that bees and wasps
in other parts of the world may also tend to oc-
cupy lower fire risk roosting sites in fire-prone
regions.

Fig. 2. Lipotriches flavoviridis (s.g.) sleeping aggrega-
tion, December 2007.

Bees and wasps roosting in sites possibly
protected from fire

Bradley (1908) found a large concentration of
sleeping aggregations, mostly of wasps, but in-
cluding three bee species, in California, USA.
His observations were made during summer in
the San Joaquin Valley, when the vegetation had
been parched by more than a month of hot, dry
conditions. The large numbers of wasps (and a
few bees) were aggregated at intervals along a
road for ‘perhaps a mile or more’. The roosting

30

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

Fig. 3. Lipotriches flavoviridis (s.g.) roosting
site, December 2007 (bees are in bottom
right hand part of photo).

groups of wasps and bees were scattered along
a narrow strip of dried vegetation between the
road and a recently harvested grain field. On
the other side of the road from the sleeping
aggregations of wasps and bees, the vegetation
had been recently burnt by extensive prairie
fires’. Bradley searched the sagebrush and fox-
tail grass on the plains ‘twelve miles distant’, but
was unable to find any other sleeping aggrega-
tions of wasps. This suggests that these wasps
and bees may have selectively occupied a roost-
ing site that was at a lower risk of burning, com-
pared with alternative sites on the plains.

In this present study sleeping aggregations of
bees were sometimes found on smaller vegeta-
tion patches, separated by a clearing from larg-
er, nearby areas of vegetation. This behaviour
may have protected the bees from the greater
risk of fire involved in roosting in the larger ar-
eas of vegetation, just as the wasps (and bees)
that Bradley observed in the San Joaquin Valley
may have received some protection by roosting
in a narrow roadside strip of vegetation. Some
of the bees observed in my study roosted at or
near the edges of tracks or trails. This may pos-
sibly have given them some protection from
fire, as some of these tracks could potentially
have acted as fire breaks in the event of lower
intensity fires. However, this would probably
not apply to very narrow tracks surrounded by
thick, fire-prone vegetation. Price and Brad-
stock (2010) found evidence to indicate that
roads may stop some fires in the dry sclerophyll
forests of the Sydney region.

Evans and Linsley (1960) and Linsley (1962)
studied a diverse array of bee and wasp species

gathered together in a concentration of sleep-
ing aggregations in the Chiricahua Mountains,
in Arizona, USA. The site of these aggregations
was a meadow, approximately 30 m x 90 m (ca.
100 x 300 feet), situated opposite a building,
across an access road and car parking area, at a
research station. The brief site description pro-
vided by the authors suggests that the meadow
may have been somewhat protected from fire,
at least on one side. This meadow roosting site
occupied by these bees and wasps may have
served as a refuge from fires, when compared
with the woodlands surrounding the research
station, which may have been more likely to
be burnt than the meadow. The vegetation of
the Chiricahua Mountains is prone to fires and
there was recently a major wildfire in the area.

Bees roosting in recently burnt areas
Rau and Rau (1916) found two sleeping aggre-
gations of male Svastra obliqua (as Melissodes
obliqua) (Apidae) bees roosting on scorched
leaves in recently burnt areas in open fields in
Missouri, USA, but they were unable to find
bees of this species roosting in nearby unburnt
vegetation. Frankie et al (1980) studied the bee
Centris adani (Apidae) at a site, consisting of
farmland interspersed with patches of regrow-
ing dry forest, in Costa Rica. Their study site
included areas of unburnt tall grass and ‘brush’,
but the only sleeping aggregation of male bees
that they found was located in a recently burnt
area. In this present study, an aggregation of
Megachile ferox (Megachilidae), some aggrega-
tions of Lipotriches flavoviridis (species group)
(Halictidae) and one aggregation of Amegilla

Vol 130 (1) 2013

31

Research Reports

7 bombiformis (Apidae) bees were found roost-
ing in recently burnt areas.

Before European settlement there were large
areas of fire-prone contiguous vegetation in the
Sydney district and roosting in recently burnt
areas may have been an important way for bees
to avoid the hazard of fire. Also, bees may have
used vegetation associated with larger rock out-
crops as roosting sites, because such situations
may have offered some protection from fire.
Even though much of the bushland closer to
Sydney is now fragmented, it seems likely that
recently burnt areas may still offer roosting bees
a refuge from the risk of fire in those suburbs of
the city that have retained some remnant natu-
ral vegetation (such as in the Lane Cove River
valley).

Schowalter (2000) indicated that some in-
sects with longer (2-5 year) generation times
may avoid places where litter has accumulated
in fire-prone ecosystems. Miller and Wagner
(1984) found that pupae of the Pandora Moth
Coloradia pandora pandora (Saturniidae), in a
pine forest in Arizona, tended to occur in great-
er numbers where fuel loads were lighter on the
ground and the canopy was more open. They
speculated that this tendency may have reduced
the risk of the pupae being killed by fire. Frost
(1984) stated that some bird species appar-
ently prefer to nest on recently burnt ground
and suggested that these birds might be able to
detect predators more easily and that predators
might be less plentiful in recently burnt areas.
The eggs, chicks and nesting adults of these
birds would also be less exposed to the risk of
their being killed by fire, as recently burnt areas
would be less likely to support fires than un-
burnt areas. Frost noted that some of these bird
species have dark coloured eggs and chicks and
suggested that these might be adaptations’ to
nesting on blackened ground.

Rau and Rau (1916) observed that the brown
bodies of the bee Svastra obliqua (Apidae)
blended very well with the ‘dingy’ burned
leaves of the scorched plants on which some
of these bees roosted in the two recently burnt
areas mentioned above. In this current study it
was noted that the generally brownish coloura-
tion of Lipotriches flavoviridis (species group)
(Halictidae) bees blended effectively with the
brownish stems of the scorched Pimelea lini-

folia and Zieria smithii skeletons that some of
these bees roosted upon in recently burnt bush-
land in 2003. This camouflage’ was particularly
effective at lower light levels and when the bees
were motionless (and in smaller numbers).
This bee species also sometimes roosts on the
brownish skeletons of dead plants in areas that
have not been recently burnt, as well as on the
brownish and green portions of some living
plants, in the Lane Cove River valley.

Bees and wasps roosting at the edges of
vegetation

Researchers have reported finding bees and
wasps roosting at or near the edges of vegeta-
tion. For example, Rau and Rau (1916) noted
that a thick ‘mass’ of weeds bordering a large
open area seemed to be a favoured roosting
site for the wasp Myzinum sp. (as Elis 5-cincta)
(Tiphiidae) in the USA. Also, Rau (1938) ob-
served sleeping aggregations of the wasp Prion-
yx atratus (as Priononyx atratum ) (Sphecidae)
on weeds at the edge of a harvested wheat field
and the wasp Ammophila nigricans (Sphecidae)
roosting on low plants between a garden and
‘the woods’, in Missouri, USA. Mathewson and
Daly (1955) found the bee Melissodes denticu-
lata (as M. perplexa) (Apidae) aggregating to
sleep on Verbena stricta in a ‘weedy clearing’ in
Kansas, USA. More recently, Hausl-Hofstatter
(2008) found a small number of individuals of
8 bee species and 3 wasp species, over a number
of years, roosting in a forest clearing, next to
a roadside in Croatia. Such observations are
similar to those made in this present study, of
bees forming sleeping aggregations at or near
the edges of vegetation in the Lane Cove River
valley. In this study area the remaining frag-
ments of native vegetation have long perime-
ters, and potential roosting sites at the edges of
vegetation are abundant. Observations during
the course of this study of apparently suitable
roosting sites within unburnt vegetation, away
from the edges, indicated that they were mostly
unused by bees.

There could be a number of reasons why bees
and wasps might favour the edges of vegetation
for their roosting sites. For example, they may
prefer to roost in more open areas because such
places could be more likely to be exposed to
sunshine, enabling the insects to use the sun’s

32

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

heat to warm themselves before taking off in
the morning and/or to keep them warm whilst
settling in the afternoon. The potential signifi-
cance of such thermoregulatory benefits could
be illustrated by the observation that sleeping
in dark flowers evidently enables some bee spe-
cies to warm up more quickly in the morning
(Dafni et al. 1981; Sapir et al 2005; Sapir et
al 2006). Kaiser (1995) observed that several
roosting solitary bee species became active only
after they were exposed to direct sunlight. An-
other possible benefit of roosting at or near the
edge of vegetation is that bees and wasps might
be able to flee into the adjacent cleared area, if a
fire happened when there was enough light for
them to see and fly away. On very warm, sunny
days, some bees observed in this study took a
long time to settle down at their roosting sites,
in the late afternoon or evening, before ceasing
activity at or before sunset. On such days, there
could be quite a long time when the settling
bees would be alert enough to respond to any
fire in the vicinity of their roost.

Oldroyd and Wongsiri (2006) noted that the
location of drone congregation areas of Asian
honey bees is apparently governed by particu-
lar physiographic features of the landscape that
attract the males. Roosting solitary bee species
may also follow simple rules to decide where to
roost. For example, some bees and wasps may
prefer more open roosting sites. Such a pref-
erence may have originated from a possible
thermoregulatory benefit provided by roost-
ing in locations more exposed to sunshine, as
discussed above. The possible added benefit
of a lowered risk of fire may have, in turn, re-
inforced the initial preference for roosting in
more open areas.

The potential reaction of roosting bees to an
approaching fire

It is not clear exactly how roosting bees would
react to an approaching fire. Visscher et al
(1995) quoted reports that worker Honey Bees
Apis mellifera (Apidae) respond to smoke by
engorging themselves with honey drawn from
the comb and that smoke reduces the number
of guard bees at the hive entrance. They found
that applying smoke to isolated A. mellifera an-
tennae reduced the response of these antennae
to honey bee alarm pheromones. Oldroyd and

Wongsiri (2006) noted that people in south-
east Asia, who climb trees for wild bee honey
at night, will strike the tree branch near the
nest with a torch of bundled burning leaves and
that some disoriented bees from the nest will
follow the falling sparks, as they cascade down-
wards. They also considered that hunters using
smoke to drive the wild Asian honeybee Apis
dorsata away from nests during the daytime,
before harvesting honey (rather than burning
them off at night) are likely to greatly increase
the chances of the bee colonies surviving. Frost
(1984) noted that ticks may respond to smoke
by dropping to the ground to seek shelter and
that some grasshoppers are apparently capable
of fleeing some fires. Schiitz et al. (1999) indi-
cated that the Colorado Potato Beetle Leptino-
tarsa decemlineata (Chrysomelidae) responds
to high concentrations of fire-generated vola-
tile compounds by exhibiting ‘escape behav-
iour. If bees can detect smoke from fires, then
roosting bees might attempt to fly away from
an approaching fire, if it occurred when there
was sufficient light for the bees to see. If this is
the case, then bees (and wasps) roosting next
to a cleared area would probably have a better
chance of surviving an intense, fast moving,
daytime fire than if they had roosted at a site
surrounded by thick vegetation.

Further ways roosting bees and wasps may re-
duce fire risk

Rau and Rau (1916) observed Chalybion cali-
fornicum (as C. caeruleum) (Sphecidae) wasps
aggregating under a rock overhang and Rau
(1938) found the same species forming sleep-
ing aggregations in an abandoned house, in
the USA. Evans et al (1986) noted that males
and females of the sand wasp Bembecinus quin-
quespinosus (Crabronidae) slept in clusters un-
der rocks in Colorado, USA. They suggested
that the rocks may have protected the wasps
from cooler night-time temperatures (and the
wind) and helped the wasps to warm up in
the morning. It is possible that sleeping un-
der rocks may also provide some wasp species
with a degree of protection from fire that they
would not receive while roosting on vegetation.
In this case, thermoregulation could be the pri-
mary benefit and protection from fire might be
a secondary benefit of roosting under rocks.

Vol 130 (1)2013

33

Research Reports

Evans and O’Neill (2007) found that males of
the sand wasp Bembix cursitans (Crabronidae)
constructed unusually deep sleeping burrows at
a site in coastal Western Australia. Such bur-
rows could provide the males of this wasp spe-
cies with protection from fire, at night.

Cane and Neff (2011) indicated that ground-
nesting bees may tend to prefer bare patches
of ground or soil banks for their nest sites and
that this could provide some protection from
the heating effects of wildfires, due to the lower
levels of fuel at such sites. Other insect species
may find more unusual refuges from fire in the
landscape. For example, Brennan et al (2011)
observed that some insects and other inverte-
brates survived in experimentally burnt grass
trees Xanthorrhoea preissii (Xanthorrhoeaceae)
in Western Australia.

In fire-prone vegetation, such as much of Syd-
neys bushland, fire probably poses a significant
risk to bee populations. During the daytime,
bees might be able to evade fires, depending
upon their ability to detect cues such as smoke
early enough for them to fly away from the path
of an approaching fire. The faster and more in-
tense fires probably pose a greater risk to bees
and other insects. The females of some solitary
bee species probably receive protection from
fires at night because they make their nests by
burrowing deeply enough into the ground to
avoid over-heating in the event of a fire (Potts
et al. 2003; Cane and Neff 2011). However, the
females and young of some other solitary bee
species are probably at a greater risk of being
killed by fires because their nesting locations
(e.g. inside thin plant stems) are not adequately
protected from high intensity fire (Potts et al.
2003; Maynard and Rao 2010; Cane and Neff
2011). The males of most bee species in the
Sydney region probably sleep on vegetation, in
the open, at night. There has probably been se-
lection pressure on roosting bees in the Sydney
region, over many centuries, favouring the sur-
vival of bees that tend to occupy roosting sites
that are at a lower risk of being burnt, or sites
affording more opportunity for the roosting
bees to flee an approaching fire. This may also
apply to bees and wasps in fire-prone environ-
ments in other parts of the world.

Further research possibilities

These observations over a ten year period in-
dicated that roosting bees in the study area
generally tended to occupy sites at the safer
end of the fire risk spectrum. The bee roosting
sites appeared not to be randomly distributed
throughout the landscape and fire risk reduc-
tion appeared to be a likely factor in the loca-
tion of bee roosting sites in this fire-prone land-
scape. However, it may be difficult to separate
this effect from the possible thermoregulatory
benefits gained by bees roosting in more open
areas and on the edges of vegetation. Addition-
al field work, possibly supplemented by experi-
mental studies, could help to determine the rel-
ative influence of these factors on bee roosting
site selection. Another avenue of research could
be the response of roosting solitary bee species
to approaching fire and the effects of smoke on
bee sleeping aggregations.

Concluding remarks

This study indicates that solitary bee species ob-
served forming sleeping aggregations in the fire-
prone Lane Cove River valley, in south-eastern
Australia, appeared to have a general tendency
to roost in sites that were at a lower risk of being
burnt, or sites likely to offer a greater chance for
the bees to escape a threatening fire. Some bee
and wasp species in other fire-prone regions of
the world may also show a tendency to occupy
lower fire risk roosting sites. The possibility that
some roosting bees and wasps occupy sites at a
lower risk of burning in fire-prone ecosystems
is an idea providing opportunities for further
research in both Australia and overseas. More
field and experimental work could be required
to unequivocally determine whether this idea is
valid. There are also unanswered questions sur-
rounding the wider phenomenon of the forma-
tion of sleeping aggregations in bees and wasps.
The function of such sleeping aggregations is
apparently not well understood. It is not clear
whether there is one function or whether there
are multiple reasons for this behaviour.

Acknowledgements

I’d like to thank David Robinson for organising
permission from Ryde Council to collect bees in a
council reserve. Thanks to Michael Batley for iden-
tifying eight bee species from specimens, for gener-

34

The Victorian Naturalist

Research Reports

ously sharing his knowledge of these bees, advising
on the taxonomic status of Lipotriches flavoviridis
(species group) and Amegilla zonata (species group)
and for identifying a number of bee species from
photos. (However, I am responsible for any errors in
bee identification or nomenclature that may be con-
tained in this paper). Thanks also to David Britton
for providing information about Lasioglossum per-
australe and Euryglossa subsericea and for commu-
nicating M. Batleys identifications of these species,
and thanks to Emma Gray for conveying several of
the earlier identifications to me. I’d also like to thank
the two anonymous referees for providing interesting
comments on my paper. (Note: The reference used to
check nomenclature of sphecid wasps was ‘Catalog of
Sphecidae’, compiled by W.J. Pulawski, www.research.
calacademy.org/ent/catalog_sphecidae)

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Received 16 August 2012; accepted 22 November 2012

36

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus in Framlingham Forest, south-west
Victoria: introduction, translocation and the effects of a bushfire

Robert L Wallis

Horsham Campus Research precinct, University of Ballarat, Horsham, Victoria 3402

Abstract

Koalas were introduced into Framlingham Forest, south-west Victoria, in 1971 and the population grew rap-
idly. By the 1990s the forest was suffering severe defoliation and many trees preferred by Koalas had been
over-browsed. In 1998/99 around 1100 Koalas were captured, the males sterilised and animals translocated
to other suitable habitats in western Victoria. Some habitat restoration was subsequently undertaken. In 2007
a deliberately lit fire destroyed most eucalypt foliage and many Koalas were killed or burned and removed by
wildlife carers and DSE staff. A survey in 201 1 found only two Koalas in the area. A Koala management plan
for Framlingham Forest has been prepared. (The Victorian Naturalist 130 (1) 2013, 37-40)

Keywords: Koala Phascolarctos cinereus , management, Framlingham Forest, Indigenous Pro-
tected Area.

Introduction

There is debate on the conservation status of
Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus in Australia, and
the Senate Standing Committees on Environ-
ment and Communications has recently con-
cluded an inquiry into the species’ conserva-
tion management and status (Parliament of
Australia 2011). In parts of Queensland and
NSW there have been dramatic population
declines of Koalas mainly through habitat loss,
predation and roadkills, and the conservation
status has been amended to threatened, while
in Victoria and Kangaroo Island, South Aus-
tralia, the problem facing wildlife managers is
over-abundant populations of Koalas that cause
severe defoliation, tree death and starvation of
the animals.

This paper describes changes in Koala num-
bers in Framlingham Forest in south-west Vic-
toria from their time of introduction 40 years
ago, through a major translocation exercise in
the 1990s and after a 2007 bushfire. This forest
is a large (1130 ha) remnant native forest that
is an Indigenous Protected Area (IPA) - land
owned and managed by the local Aboriginal
community for cultural and biodiversity con-
servation.

Framlingham Forest

The forest is located 25 km north-east of
Warrnambool in south-west Victoria. The for-
est is bounded on the east by the Hopkins River
and to the north, south and west by cleared

farmland. It is a remnant Brown Stringy-
bark Eucalyptus baxteri and Manna Gum E.
viminalis savannah that once dominated the
landscape across much of south-west Victoria
(Douglas 2004).

Aborigines have been living continuously in
and around what is known as Framlingham
Forest; in recognition of this, the land was vest-
ed by the Victorian Aboriginal Land Act 1987
to the Kirrae Whurrong Aboriginal Corpora-
tion. Later it became Victorias second IPA and
the Corporation owns and manages the prop-
erty for cultural and biodiversity conservation.

Koalas in Framlingham Forest

It is unknown whether Koalas were present in
what is now Framlingham Forest before Euro-
pean settlement. Certainly, locals do not recall
seeing Koalas in the forest until 1971, when
the Victorian Government released 30 unsteri-
lised animals from French Island. There are
no details available on the sex of the released
animals. These translocated animals were free
of the urogenital strain of Chlamydia (Martin
and Handasyde 1999). Both the Australian and
Victorian Governments’ Koala Management
Strategies list translocation as a method of re-
ducing the impact of overbrowsing by Koalas
(DEWHA - Department of Environment, Wa-
ter, Heritage and the Arts 2009, DSE - Depart-
ment of Sustainability and Environment 2004).

Vol 130 (1) 2013

37

Contributions

The population grew rapidly and by the 1990s
there were calls for intervention from local nat-
uralists and residents to protect the forest and
concerns raised about the health of animals
(Martin pers. comm.).

During 1998/1999 DSE began a Koala steri-
lisation and translocation program. Goldstraw
(pers. comm.) estimates some 1100 Koalas were
removed to sites that included The Grampians
National Park, Mt Cole, Central Highlands and
near Casterton. A veterinary surgeon super-
vised the vasectomies of male animals so that
the only fertile males released would theoreti-
cally ultimately have been male pouch and on-
back’ young. Koalas were also removed from
sites adjoining Framlingham Forest, along the
Hopkins River. DSE was unable to provide
details of the age, sex and destination of the
translocated animals. The overpopulation had
destroyed almost all mature Manna Gums and
damaged Swamp Gums E. ovata and River Red
Gums E. camaldulensis. Koalas were reported
eating non-preferred species such as Messmate
Stringbark E. obliqua and exotics, which sug-
gests food was limited. A revegetation scheme
was undertaken by volunteers (Fig. 1). Gold-
straw (pers. comm.) reports that on one occa-
sion he stood in the centre of the picnic ground
and counted 1 1 Koalas in trees surrounding the
car park.

Natasha McLean, a postgraduate student at
The University of Melbourne, studied the Koa-
las that were captured and translocated. In 2003
she was awarded a PhD in which, inter alia , she
examined data for the parameters that contrib-
ute to population growth, such as age structure,

Fig. 1. Trees planted by volunteers.

38

sex ratio, and age-specific schedules of mortal-
ity and fecundity in a series of overpopulated
Koala sites in Victoria (McLean 2003; McLean
and Handasyde 2006). The only notable differ-
ence between Koalas from Framlingham For-
est and those from their original site (French
Island) was that at Framlingham Forest 85% of
births occurred between December and March,
compared with 53% at French Island, indicat-
ing a highly seasonal breeding pattern at Fram-
lingham.

On 10 January 2007, a fire that is believed to
have been deliberately lit (Thomson and Quirk
2012) raged through the Forest (Warrnambool
Wildlife Rescue 2007). Approximately 95% of
the remaining Manna Gums were destroyed by
this high-intensity fire (Watson pers. comm.)
(Figs. 2, 3). DSE records show 147 injured Koa-
las were rescued by volunteers, although many
animals were not reported; a DSE debriefing
with veterinarians suggests up to 450 surviving

Fig. 2. Same site post fire.

Fig. 3. Vegetation post fire. Some sites (foreground
were razed while the canopies in others were badly
burned.

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

Fig. 4. Aftermath of the January 2007 fire.

Koalas were removed over six weeks post fire.
There were reports of many animals killed by
the fire, although there are no details available
on the actual number (Warrnambool Wildlife
Rescue 2007) (Fig. 4).

In 2011 two brief surveys of the road and
tracks of Framlingham Forest were undertaken
by Deakin University students (9 half hour sur-
veys) and the Warrnambool Field Naturalists
Club (2 hours) respectively. Both surveys found
two Koalas in the Forest.

Koalas affected by fire

Some 147 Koalas were recorded as rescued after
the January 2007 fire. As the responsible agen-
cy, DSE coordinated the rescue but members of
the Warrnambool Wildlife Rescue group, car-
ers, volunteer wildlife veterinarians and other
volunteers undertook much of the rescue op-
eration. Seventy-eight of the collected animals
were female; of the animals whose ages were
estimated, the 3-5 year old cohort was the most
common (23 animals). There were five classed
by DSE as ‘babies’ (presumably pouch young),
five animals estimated to be between five
months and 10 months old, six classed as over
six years old and another four listed as ‘adult’.

Animals were collected three days after the
fire and for the next 21 days. Most animals were
collected 17 days after the fire, although daily
collection efforts might have varied.

The fates of 87 animals were recorded; these
did not include pouch young that were with

Vol 130 (1) 2013

their mothers. Wildlife carers took 38 (the final
fate of which is unknown), 33 were released by
DSE staff to the nearby Crawford River Region-
al Park, two went to Healesville Sanctuary, and
14 were either euthanised or died after rescue.

Future management of Koalas in Framling-
ham Forest

Wallis and Martin (2011) prepared a Koala
population management plan for Framling-
ham Forest for the Kirrae Whurrong Aborigi-
nal Corporation. This report was to inform the
Environmental Management Plan for the for-
est. The Koala population management plan
included the following recommendations:

• Regular monitoring of Koalas along a des-
ignated survey route should be undertaken.
It was recommended regular surveys be
conducted and the Koala numbers plotted
over time. When rate of growth of numbers
appears maximal, DSE Natural Resources
- Biodiversity staff should be notified so a
population management program can be im-
plemented. Wallis and Martin (2011) suggest-
ed this might equate to 50 animals observed
along the designated survey route.

• The land managers should not attempt any
Koala population regulation activities them-
selves but instead rely on DSE expertise.

• If the land managers wish to enhance Koala
habitat, the health and numbers of E. vimi-
nalis should be monitored and if these char-
acteristics are deficient after say three years,
initiate a planting program of preferred trees,
similar to the previous habitat rehabilitation
program.

• If Koala numbers again build up, land man-
agers might wish to seek support from the
Commonwealth and State Governments to
conduct: (i) a eucalypt mapping survey of for-
est, and (ii) a study of the genetic diversity of
the Koala population.

Acknowledgements

I thank Neil Martin, Framlingham Aboriginal Trust,
for suggesting the survey work and management plan,
for the photographs and for his advice and support
throughout the project. I also thank Lisa Shuck and
students undertaking ESS420 from Deakin Universi-
ty. Mandy Watson from DSE is especially thanked for
providing the data on injured Koalas, her useful com-
ments on the manuscript and the aerial photograph.

39

Contributions

References

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Martin R and Handasyde K (1999) The Koala: Natural His-
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McLean N (2003) Ecology and management of overabundant
koala ( Phascolarctos cinereus) populations. (Unpublished
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McLean N and Handasyde K (2006) Sexual maturity, factors
affecting the breeding season and breeding in consecutive
seasons in populations of overabundant Victorian koalas
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385-392.

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lingham fire. Warrnambool Standard 15 March 2012, p.2.

Wallis R and Martin N (2011) Framlingham Forest Koala
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fire, http://www.warrnambool-wildlife.org.au/gpage7.html
(accessed 8 March 2012).

Received 22 March 2012; accepted 26 July 2012

A rare sighting of the Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus
in north-central Victoria

Anna K Flanagan-Moodie

School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125

Email: afl@deakin.edu.au

Abstract

The Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus is a small, omnivorous marsupial found in south-eastern Aus-
tralia. In Victoria, the present distribution of C. nanus is geographically patchy, generally associated with for-
ests of the Great Dividing Range, but also a range of coastal forests and shrublands. In Box-Ironbark forests
of north-central Victoria, C. nanus appears to have undergone a severe population decline. In April 2011, a
single Eastern Pygmy-possum was observed in the Redcastle-Graytown State Forest during nocturnal survey
work. This is a notable record considering that the species has not otherwise been reported from this area for
approximately 40 years. (The Victorian Naturalist 130 (1) 2013, 40-44)

Keywords: mammal, Box-Ironbark Forest, Redcastle-Graytown State Forest, Heathcote-Graytown
National Park.

Introduction

The Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus
is a small (~ 17-42 g), omnivorous marsupial
of south-eastern Australia (Flarris 2008). Its
geographic range extends from south-eastern
South Australia, through Victoria and New
South Wales, to south-eastern Queensland
(Ward 1990; Harris et al 2007; Menkhorst
and Knight 2011); and also includes Tasmania
(Harris et al 2008). The main threats to the con-
servation of C. nanus are reported to be inap-
propriate fire regimes resulting in a reduction
of the shrub layer, habitat loss, and introduced
predators (Harris 2008). The conservation

status of the species is listed as vulnerable in
New South Wales (New South Wales Govern-
ment 2012) and South Australia (Government
of South Australia 2011). In Victoria, it is not
listed as being threatened, although concerns
have been expressed about its status (Harris
and Goldingay 2005; Harris 2008; Department
of Sustainability and Environment 2010).

Cercartetus nanus is considered to be a mid-
storey specialist, occurring in a range of vegeta-
tion types such as rainforest, sclerophyll forest,
shrubland, heathland and woodland (Harris
2008). It is commonly associated with a dense

40

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

understorey of Banksia, or other shrub species,
that provide its main food source of nectar and
pollen (Menkhorst 1995; Harris 2008). C. nanus
finds shelter in tree hollows, stumps, Xanthor-
rhoea skirts and occasionally in disused bird
nests (Menkhorst 1995; Harris and Goldingay
2005).

In Victoria, C. nanus has a widespread but
patchy distribution, occurring in the Portland
area in the south-west of the state, the Gram-
pians, the Otway Ranges and the forests of
the Great Dividing Range from Ballarat to the
north-east of the state (Fig. 1). Its distribution
also extends along the south-eastern coastline

from Wilsons Promontory to East Gippsland
(Fig. 1) (Menkhorst 1995; Harris and Goldin-
gay 2005).

Recent records of C. nanus from the dry Box-
Ironbark forests of north-central Victoria have
been scarce (Fig. 2), and Menkhorst (1995)
suggested that the species may have suffered a
severe decline due to a reduction in shrub spe-
cies associated with intensive management of
these forests. The most recent records of C. na-
nus in the Heathcote-Graytown National Park
and Redcastle-Graytown State Forest (Fig. 3),
east of Bendigo, appear to be prior to 1970 (Fig.
2) (Museum Victoria 2002).

COLLECTION DATE LEGEND

o

o

8

0 *

3

3

3

Fig. 1. Distributional records of the Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus across Victoria, (source: Mu-
seum Victoria 2002).

Vol 130 (1) 2013

41

Contributions

An observation of Cercartetus nanus in Box-
Ironbark forest

A study of the ecological effects of prescribed
burning in Box-Ironbark forests of the Heath-
cote- Graytown National Park and Redcastle-
Graytown State Forest (an area of approximately
40 000 ha) in north-central Victoria, com-
menced in 2010 (Bennett et al. 2012). This study
is examining the effect of prescribed burning on
the flora, fauna and structural habitat features,
including a study of the Yellow-footed Antechi-
nus Antechinus flavipes. As part of the study of
A. flavipes , approximately 8500 trap-nights of
survey effort with small Elliott traps (with pea-
nut butter, oats and honey baits), 7350 camera
trap nights with similar baits, and 58 nights of
radio telemetry have been performed.

On 12 April 2011, four days after a prescribed
burn treatment, two researchers from Deakin
University were radio tracking individuals of A.
flavipes within the recently burnt area. At 8.20
pm, a small animal was spotted on the ground.
On closer inspection, the animal started bound-
ing across the ground and climbed to a height
of around 1.5 m on a small (2-3 m tall), dead
sapling. The animal was observed for approxi-
mately 5 minutes, allowing photographs to be
taken and identification of the small mammal
as C. nanus (Fig. 4).

This individual was observed within a study
area approximately 100 ha in size within the
forest. The overstorey is dominated by Red
Ironbark Eucalyptus tricarpa L.A.S. Johnson,
with Grey Box E. microcarpa Maiden, Red
Stringybark E. macrorhyncha F.Muell. ex Benth.

144 E ■ 145 E 146 E

Fig. 2. Distributional records of the Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus across north-
central Victoria (source: Museum Victoria 2002).

42

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

Fig. 3. Regional locality map of north-central Victoria highlighting Heathcote-Graytown National Park,
Redcastle-Graytown State Forest and adjoining public land.

Fig. 4. Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus
sighted in the Redcastle-Graytown State Forest, April
2011. (Photo by Anna Flanagan)

and Red Box E. polyanthemos Schauer also
present. These overstorey trees have an average
diameter of 20-30 cm. Mid-storey and shrub
species such as Golden Wattle Acacia pycnan-
tha Benth., Grass Tree Xanthorrhoea glauca
subsp. angustifolia D.J.Bedford, Sweet Bursaria
Bursaria spinosa Cav. and Drooping Cassinia
Cassinia arcuata R.Br. also occur in this area.

Conclusion

This sighting of a single C. nanus in Redcastle-
Graytown State Forest is significant as it con-
firms the continued presence of the species in
this area, despite it not having been recorded
here for at least 40 years. The lack of other re-
cent records during the current surveys, despite
extensive small mammal trapping, camera
trapping and radio telemetry undertaken in the
area, suggests that the size of the present popu-
lation of C. nanus is small.

Other methods for detecting this species,
such as the use of nest boxes, pitfall trapping
and analysis of predator scats (Bennett et al.
1989; Bladon et al. 2002; Harris and Goldingay
2005; Harris 2008), may also be useful in gain-
ing additional records in these forests. The de-
ployment of nest boxes developed particularly
for this species may be a useful management

Vol 130 (1) 2013

43

Contributions

strategy to assist with recovery and monitoring
of C. nanus in this area (e.g. Bladon et al. 2002).

The confirmation of the ongoing presence
of C. nanus in these Box-Ironbark forests of
central Victoria is noteworthy, and needs to be
considered in developing wildlife management
strategies for the region.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Andrew Bennett, Greg Holland and Mike
Clarke for their input to the management of the fire
ecology study, and for comments on this article. Fi-
nancial support towards the fire ecology study has
been provided by the Department of Sustainability
and Environment (NW Region and Project Hawk-
eye), Parks Victoria, Deakin University, La Trobe
University, and the Holsworth Wildlife Foundation.
Thanks also to Alicia Ivory for her assistance in the
field. This work has been undertaken under Flora and
Fauna permit number 10005470.

References

Bennett AF, Holland GJ, Flanagan A, Kelly S and Clarke MF
(2012) Fire and its interaction with ecological processes in
Box-Ironbark forests. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria. 124, 72-78

Bennett AF, Schulz M, Lumsden LF, Robertson P and John-
son PG (1989) Pitfall trapping for small mammals in tem-
perate forest environments. Australian Mammalogy 12,
37-39.

Bladon RV, Dickman CR and Hume ID (2002) Effects of
habitat fragmentation on the demography, movements and
social organisation of the eastern pygmy possum ( Cercarte -
tus nanus) in northern New South Wales. Wildlife Research
29, 105-116.

Department of Sustainability and Environment (2010) Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 - Threatened List - October
2010. Melbourne.

Government of South Australia (2011) National Parks and
Wildlife Act 1972

Harris J (2008) Cercartetus nanus (Diprotodontia: Burramyi-
dae). Mammalian Species 815, 1-10.

Harris JM and Goldingay RL (2005) Distribution, habitat
and conservation status of the eastern pygmy-possum
Cercartetus nanus in Victoria. Australian Mammalogy 27,
185-210.

Harris JM, Gynther IC, Eyre T, Goldingay RL and Mathieson
MT (2007) Distribution, habitat and conservation status of
the eastern pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus in Queens-
land. Australian Zoologist 34, 209-216.

Harris JM, Munks SA, Goldingay RL, Wapstra M and Hird
D (2008) Distribution, habitat and conservation status of
the eastern pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus in Tasmania.
Australian Mammalogy 29, 213-232

Menkhorst PW (ed) (1995) Mammals of Victoria : distribu-
tion, ecology and conservation (Oxford University Press in
association with Department, of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Melbourne)

Menkhorst PW and Knight F (2011) A field guide to the
mammals of Australia (Oxford University Press: South
Melbourne)

Museum Victoria (2002) Bioinformatics Victorian Faunal
Web Site. Published on the Internet; http://www.museum.
vic.gov.au/bioinformatics/ [accessed 19 March 2012 at
16:30; search string: Cercartetus nanus], Melbourne, Aus-
tralia.

Parliament of New South Wales (2012) Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1 995

Ward SJ (1990) Life history of the Eastern Pygmy-possum,
Cercartetus nanus (Burramyidae: Marsupialia), in south-
eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 38, 287-
304.

Received 17 May 2012; accepted 1 1 October 2012

Ninety-seven Years Ago

’POSSUMS. — “F.R.” in “Bush Notes” in the Australasian of 24th June, has some remarks on the food of
’possums in captivity. He says that in their wild state it was obviously impossible for ’possums to obtain
cooked meat, yet in confinement they will eat it freely. Again, before the advent of the white man fruit was
practically non-existent in Australian forests; yet a neighbour, who has a choice garden containing some
fine apple-trees, finds that as soon as the apples begin to ripen the ’possums begin to arrive, though no one
would suspect that there were any of the animals in the neighbourhood. They are very fond of apples, and
will also eat peaches and other fruits, while potatoes and other vegetables are also favoured. In another
friend's garden the buds of a La France rose were continually disappearing, the cause being put down to
snails, but it was afterwards found that ’possums were the cause, and “F.R.” says in his own garden they
will leave everything else for a rosebud. Cooked meat, he remarks, seems to have irresistible attractions for
many wild things. Cockatoos and parrots are very fond of it, yet, of course, they could not possibly have
tasted it in their wild state. There is no accounting for these aberrations, and apparently these strange arti-
cles of diet do them no harm— in fact, they seem to thrive on them. Cake and sugar are common articles
of diet with tame ’possums. These must be very different from the meals of gum-leaves that formed their
natural food. No doubt they also eat grass in their native state, but their staple food is undoubtedly the
young shoots and leaves of the various eucalypts.

From The Victorian Naturalist XXXIII, pp. 47-48, July 6, 1916

44

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

The rare collembolan genus, Temeritas (Symphypleona:
Sminthuridae), in southern Australia: systematics,
distribution and conservation status

Penelope Greenslade

Centre for Environmental Management, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria 3353
South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.
School of Biology, Australian National University, Australian Capital Territory 0200.
Email: Pgreenslade@staff. ballarat.edu.au.

Abstract

A brief summary of the genus Temeritas is given with distributions of the four described Australian species and
records of other species in the genus. A spelling correction is documented for the Western Australian species
and a new name for the Victorian species is formally proposed here as the original name is preoccupied. Char-
acters that distinguish Temeritas from allied genera are noted and the conservation status of the three southern
species and Collembola in general are discussed. ( The Victorian Naturalist 130 (1) 2013, 45-48)

Keywords: Temeritas denisi , Temeritas regalis, Temeritas elegans

Introduction

The Collembola, common name Springtail, are
a group of arthropods, little known because of
their small size and cryptic habits. However, the
class is abundant, widespread and species-rich
with a high proportion of species endemic to
Australia. Genera in some families include a
high proportion of endemic species (short-
range endemics), an example being the genus
Temeritas Delamare Deboutteville and Mas-
soud, 1963.

Species of Temeritas are easily recognised as
they are globular, up to 2 mm long, usually
brightly coloured with purple stripes and spots
and slender antennae that are longer than the
head and body combined (Figs 1, 2, 3).

The genus has a predominantly pantropical
distribution although, exceptionally, some spe-
cies in Australia and New Zealand are restrict-
ed to temperate climates. At present, 47 species
are known in the genus, of which three have
been described from Australia (Bellinger et al
2012). The Australian species were described
originally in the genus Sminthurus Latreille
as S. denisi Womersley, 1934 from south-west
Western Australia, S. regalis Womersley, 1939
from southern South Australia and S. elegans
Womersley, 1939 from southern Victoria. These
species are clearly allopatric. Sminthurus denisi
was incorrectly named as S. denisii by Womer-
sley (1934) but, in his subsequent publications

Fig. 1 . Pen and ink drawing of Temeritas regalis
(Womersley) by JM Betsch

(1936, 1939), he correctly changed the specific
name to S. denisi. Womersley also recorded this
species from New Zealand (Womersley 1936)
but the record is unlikely and remains uncon-
firmed. Najt (1968) transferred two of the Aus-
tralian species, S. regalis and S. elegans, to the
genus Temeritas, but transposed their locali-
ties in her publication. Later, S. denisi was also
transferred to Temeritas by Greenslade (1994).

Vol 130 (1) 2013

45

Contributions

Fig 2. Line drawing of Temeritas denisi (Womersley)
from Womersley ( 1 939)

Fig. 3. Line drawing of Temeritas isabellae Greenslade
from Womersley (1939)

Distribution

A number of undescribed species have been
collected from the northern regions of West-
ern Australia, Northern Territory and Queens-
land including the Torres Strait Islands. The
species from Murray Island, Torres Strait, has
been identified as Temeritas xvomersleyi (Denis,

1948) originally described from Vietnam (P.
Greenslade new record). Localities from where
undescribed species have been collected in the
last 20 years are Sweers Island, Kuranda, Wood-
stock and Lamington National Park in Queens-
land, McArthur River and Jabiru in the North-
ern Territory, New England National Park,
Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island in New
South Wales, and Brookton and Barrow Island
in Western Australia. The genus has not been
collected from Tasmania.

Systematics

Among the other genera of globular Collem-
bola in Australia, Temeritas is distinct because
of the relatively large size of species (nearly 2
mm long), their strongly annulated antennae
that are longer than the body, and attractive
colour patterns and bands (Fig. 1). Species of
Temeritas can be distinguished from Sminthu-
rus , in which genus Womersley (1934) first de-
scribed the southern Australian species, by the
lack of an internal spine on trochanter III and
the shorter antennae. There is only one species
of Sminthurus in Australia, the pest species S.
viridis (L.). There are three other genera in Aus-
tralia with which Temeritas might be confused
but are distinct because of their long, strongly
anulated antennae, often relatively large size
and attractive colour patterns, particularly in
the banded antennae (Fig. 4). The first of these
is Parropalites Bonet and Tellez, new record,
which is known only from rainforests in north-
ern Queensland; but this genus is poorly char-
acterised at present and it has much shorter
antennae. The second genus with which Temer-
itas could be confused is Pararrhopalites Bonet
and Tellez, new record. The third is Sphyrotheca
Borner, another superficially similar genus but
it has a neosminthuroid seta ventrolaterally on
abdominal segment IV and also antennae that
are shorter than the body.

Nomenclature

As the original name of the Victorian Smin-
thurus elegans is preoccupied by Sminthurus
elegans Fitch, 1863 from North America (now
Sminthurinus elegans ), even though the Aus-
tralian species has been transferred to a dif-
ferent genus, a new name is required and it is
renamed here as Temeritas isabellae.

46

The Victorian Naturalist

Contributions

Table 1. Total number of described species, endemic species and percentage of endemic species in
each family of Collembola known from Australia

Higher taxon

Total described
species

Number of endemic
species

% endemic
species

Arrhopalitidae

2

0

0

Bourletiellidae

24

16

66

Brachystomellidae

21

18

85

Cyphoderidae

4

2

50

Dicyrtomidae

4

3

75

Entomobryidae

76

33

50

Hypogastruridae

28

7

25

Isotomidae

53

23

44

Katiannidae

32

24

75

Neanuridae

46

36

78

Neelidae

3

0

0

Odontellidae

4

3

75

Oncopoduridae

1

1

100

Onychiuridae

5

0

0

Paronellidae

14

10

71

Sminthuridae

6

3

50

Sminthurididae

6

2

33

Spinothecidae

1

1

100

Tomoceridae

7

3

43

Tullbergiidae

17

8

47

Mean

53

Conservation status

In spite of the high proportion of nationally
endemic and locally endemic species, the con-
servation of only a few Collembola has been
given attention. Tasphorura vesiculata Greens-
lade and Rusek (Tullbergiidae), occurs only in
moss in a small patch of rainforest in north-east
Tasmania, which has been given a low level of
protection in that any future logging must con-
sider protecting this species. Another is a spe-
cies of Australotomurus, Stach (Entomobryidae:
Orchesellinae) found in only four vegetation
remnants in urban Perth. It was listed with the
Western Australian Wildlife Conservation Act
1950 but delisted a few years later even though
one of the remnants was partially alienated
(P. Greenslade submitted). Some other genera
of Collembola known to contain short range
endemics are Nasosminthurus Stach (Bourle-

tiellidae), Epimetrura Schott (Entomobryidae)
and Folsomotoma Bagnall (Isotomidae). The
percentages of endemic compared with total
species in each family known from Australia are
given in Table 1. Total mean endemism is 53%
and several of the larger families contain more
than 70% endemic species (Brachystomellidae,
Katiannidae, Neanuridae, Paronellidae) (Table
1). Many of these endemic species would be
short range endemics.

All southern Australian species of Temeritas
are uncommon and patchy in distribution.
Because their habitats include leaf litter, na-
tive grasses, moss and under logs in humid
forests, they are likely to be susceptible to cli-
mate warming. Indeed, some populations may
already have become locally extinct as a result
of drought and competition from invasive
exotic species as well as longer term climate

Vol 130 (1) 2013

47

Contributions

Fig. 4. Photograph of Temeritas isabellae from the Dandenong Ranges, Victoria.

change. For instance, T. regalis was collected
relatively frequently in the southern Mt Lofty
Ranges in the 1970s but has not been found in
the last 20 years in localities where it was previ-
ously present. Temeritas isabellae was described
originally from Kalorama, Mt Dandenong and
there are also old records from Erskine River,
Toolangi State Forest, Bellel Creek, Coranderrk
Reserve and Silverband Falls in the Grampians,
all in Victoria. As with T. regalis , the Victorian
species has not been collected in the last 30
years. A search in suitable localities and habi-
tats should be undertaken as a priority, to es-
tablish its current conservation status.

References

Bellinger PF, Christiansen KA and Janssens F (1996-2012)
Checklist of the Collembola of the World. http://www. col-
lembola. org Accessed June 2012.

Greenslade P (1994) Collembola. In Zoological Catalogue
of Australia, pp. 19-138; 157-184. Ed WWK Houston.
Volume 22: Protura, Collembola, Diplura. (CSIRO:
Collingwood, Vic)

Najt J (1968) Nouveaux documents sur le genre Temeritas et
sa distribution geographique (Collembole Symphypleone).
Revue d'Ecologie et Biologie du Sol 5, 631-636.

Womersley H (1933) On some additions to the sminthurid
fauna of Australia. Stylops 2, 241-247.

Womersley H (1934) Notes on some Australian Collembola.
Stylops 3, 244-246.

Womersley H (1936) On the Collembolan fauna of New Zea-
land. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 66,
316-328.

Womersley H (1939) Primitive Insects of South Australia. Sil-
verfish, Springtails and their allies. (Government Printer:
Adelaide)

Received 28 June 2012; accepted 30 August 2012

48

The Victorian Naturalist

Naturalist Notes

Leech predation of frog spawn

Introduction

The predators of Australian anurans and their
larvae are well documented (Tyler 1976, 1994,
Littlejohn and Wainer 1978; Davies et al. 1979;
Morgan and Buttemer 1996, Gillespie and Hero
1999). By contrast, little has been published on
the sources of predation of their spawn. Tyler
(1976, 1994) states that there are relatively few
predators of frog spawn and that ‘fish prob-
ably constitute the major predator. He notes
in particular that the foam nests of the genus
Limnodynastes are probably most accessible
to terrestrial insects because they tend to be
located around the edges of ponds where they
are attached to peripheral vegetation, and that
they are occasionally eaten by ants. Members of
the Australian frog genus Limnodynastes pro-
duce floating foam-capped nests below which
the egg mass resides (Parker 1940; Tyler and
Davies 1979; Roberts 1989). One member of
this genus, the Spotted Marsh Frog Limnody-
nastes tasmaniensis , is a very common species
throughout much of south-eastern Australia
where it breeds in most months of the year in
both temporary and permanent water bodies
and in a wide variety of both natural and man-
made habitats (Barker et al. 1995; Hero et al
1991; Littlejohn 2003). Herein I report the pre-
dation of L. tasmaniensis spawn by leeches in
an ephemeral wetland near Melbourne some
25 years ago and compare these observations
with a very similar report of predation docu-
mented by Burgin and Schell (2005) in the Syd-
ney area.

Observations

1. On 6 January 1987, following two days of
heavy rain, a shallow ephemeral wetland
located in remnant River Red Gum Euca-
lyptus camaldulensis woodland adjacent to
the Darebin Creek in the north of Bundoora
(37°69'S, 145°05'E) Victoria, was visited. The
swamp had been completely dry since about
mid- December of the previous year but rain
had refilled it and had stimulated a burst of

breeding activity in L. tasmaniensis. There
were large persistent daytime choruses (>
50 males) and numerous freshly deposited
foam nests around clumps of aquatic vegeta-
tion. Most nests were aggregated amongst a
9 m 2 patch of Spikerush Eleocharis sphaecelata
where they were exposed to dappled sunlight
or else were completely shaded. A total of 27
nests were located in this patch. The site was
visited over four consecutive days and nests
inspected for the presence of leeches and
other invertebrates on each occasion. Water
temperature approximately 10 cm below the
surface varied between 21-24°C at midday
over the four days.

Leeches were observed on the foam caps of
L. tasmaniensis nests on each day. All of the
leeches appeared to belong to the same species
and were uniform black in colour and approx.
50-60 mm in length. (Leeches were not able
to be identified to genus (or species) level ow-
ing to the lack of an appropriate identification
guide at the time.) The leeches were observed
typically lying completely still on the foam
cap of the nests with the head and anterior
body buried down through the foam cap into
the gelatinous egg mass below. While most of
the affected nests contained a single leech, on
three nests there were two, and on one nest,
three leeches. On three nests the surface of
the foam caps had dried to a polystyrene-
like consistency and leeches had attached
themselves to the side of the nest where they
were just visible above the water line. Nests
around the periphery of the aggregation were
most affected by leeches while only one leech
was recorded on a nest near the ‘centre’. On
the first day, three of the leeches (taken from
nests outside of the aggregation) were eutha-
nised and found to contain numerous (> 10),
mostly intact frog’s eggs.

The incidence of leeches on foam nests re-
mained fairly constant over the four days, af-
fecting about one-third of all nests (30-37%;

Vol 130 (I) 2013

49

Naturalist Notes

Table 1). By the fourth day, the eggs of seven
nests had begun to hatch and most of the
others were close to hatching (Gosner stages
20-25; Duellman and Trueb 1986). Two nests
were occupied by leeches for up to three con-
secutive days. Eight leeches closely examined
on the fourth day had noticeably distended
bodies, indicating recent feeding.

Other arthropods located on the foam caps
of nests included (total number in parenthe-
sis): ants (6), aquatic snails (5), spiders (4),
caterpillars (3), millipedes (2) and dipterans
(8). As none of these arthropods appeared
to be feeding directly on the eggs, it is likely
that these occurrences were quite incidental
and represent fauna displaced by flooding
(although see Discussion). The percentage
of nests with other arthropods was consist-
ent over the three days they were recorded
(14-16%; Table 1).

In addition to the observations above, I have
since made very similar observations at two
other (nearby) sites:

2. Approximately 3 km south of the above site,
beside the Darebin Creek in Bundoora, two
leeches were located on separate, recently
deposited L. tasmaniensis nests in a rela-
tively small ephemeral pond following rain
in January.

3. At Somerton (37°63’S, 144°95’E) near the
southern boundary of Craigieburn Grasslands,
four leeches were located separately on the
foam caps of freshly laid L. tasmaniensis nests
partially concealed by Poa sp. tussocks and de-
posited in a large ephemeral pond which had
been filled by heavy rain in November.

At all three localities the leeches found on
L. tasmaniensis nests appeared to be the same
species. These leeches were occasionally caught
in dip-nets skimmed through water around the
periphery of large ponds and swamps at the
sites, indicating their aquatic habit. While L.
tasmaniensis has frequently been observed to
breed in small ephemeral ponds (n > 15), no
leeches were ever observed on nests deposited
in these ponds. Leeches were never observed as
ectoparasites of L. tasmaniensis larvae or adult
frogs at any of the sites, despite regular visits
over more than ten years.

Discussion

The sanguivorous habit of many terrestrial
and aquatic leeches is well known and leeches
have been documented as ecto and endopara-
sites of both frogs and their larvae (Waite 1925;
Mann and Tyler 1963; Brockelman 1969; Tyler
1976; Duellman and Trueb 1986; Sawyer 1986
and references therein; McCallum et al. 2011).
By contrast the literature on leeches as mac-
rophagous predators of frog spawn, though
relatively small, has been largely neglected or
omitted entirely from consideration in reviews
of both leech and amphibian biology (Duell-
man and Trueb 1986; Govedich 2001; Toledo
2005; Romano and Di Cerbo 2007). A relatively
recent literature review by Romano and Di Cer-
bo (2007) found that anuran egg predation by
leeches had been documented in some 20 spe-
cies, representing 3.6% of the total number of
anuran species in those regions where anuran
leech predation occurred. That some leech
species should consume frog spawn is curious

Table 1. The frequency of occurrence of leeches and other arthropods on 27 foam nests of the
Spotted Marsh Frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis monitored over a four day period.

Day

Number of Leeches

% of nests with Leeches

% of nests with other arthropods

1

11

30

15

2

15

37

16

3

16

37

14

4

10

33

-

50

The Victorian Naturalist

Naturalist Notes

because it occurs in spite of a clear adaptation
they have to piercing the skin of mammals
(Cargo 1960) and other vertebrates. Limnody-
nastes tasmaniensis is the only Australian frog
species in which this kind of predation has
been documented to date.

The presence of leeches on L. tasmaniensis
nests is unlikely to be the result of their dis-
placement due to flooding for two reasons: (i)
I had only ever located them in water and thus
their presence on the top or sides of foam nests
above the water level (in many instances) is at
odds with this habit, and (ii) in all instances the
head of the leech was protruding down through
the foam cap into the egg mass, consistent
with their being engaged in feeding. Even if
the leeches were present on foam nests due to
disturbance of some kind, the small sample of
leeches found to have consumed frog spawn
indicates opportunistic feeding was occurring.
The number of leeches recorded on individual
foam nests in this work must, however, be con-
sidered an underestimate as only a few nests
were thoroughly examined for leeches residing
amongst the egg mass or the portion of the egg
mass below the water (and none were located).

The impact that the leeches had on individual
nests was not apparently severe since their pres-
ence did not seem to affect the integrity of the
nests and the relatively warm conditions meant
that egg development was rapid, ensuring that
most eggs hatched to produce larvae.

The occurrence of dipterans on nests, while
possibly incidental, is worthy of closer exami-
nation as the parasitisation of frog spawn by
dipteran larvae has been documented to occur
in various other anuran species (Bokermann
1957; Tyler 1976; Villa et al. 1982; Menin and
Giaretta 2003). Furthermore six South Ameri-
can leptodactylidae frog species (that produce
foam nests similar to L. tasmaniensis) were
found to suffer significant predation from dip-
teran larvae (Menin and Giaretta 2003).

It seems remarkable, given how common L.
tasmaniensis is in south-eastern Australia, and
the conspicuousness of black leeches on the
contrasting white foam nests, that leech pre-
dation had not been reported until relatively
recently. This may indicate that leech preda-
tion does not occur in all breeding situations,
or is limited by the distribution and/or habitat

preferences of the particular species of leech in-
volved.

Burgin and Schell (2005) reported the leech
B assianob della fusca feeding on L. tasmanien-
sis foam nests from a wetland near Sydney and
most of the observations described above are
consistent with their work. For instance, the
timing of the observations in both cases was
summer (or late spring), coinciding with maxi-
mum leech activity, and both sets of observa-
tions occurred in large ephemeral water bodies.
One notable point of difference was that Burgin
and Schell (op. cit.) observed that leeches con-
sumed ova only in Gosner stages 1-14, which
meant that clutches were vulnerable to preda-
tion only in the first 24 hours following ovipo-
sition; observations in this work indicate that
leeches remained on spawn clumps, apparently
continuing to feed, for up to four days. It would
be useful to know if this same leech species was
also responsible for predation events described
in this work, and further, whether leeches are
able to consume larger and more developmen-
tally advanced larvae (i.e. Gosner stages >14).

Finally, Hakansson and Loman (2004) have
shown that spawn located in the centre of com-
munal aggregations of the Common Frog Rana
temporaria suffered markedly less leech pre-
dation compared to those on the periphery. A
similar pattern of leech predation was noted in
this work and may be worthy of more detailed
examination.

References

Barker J, Grigg GC and Tyler MJ (1995) A Field Guide to
Australian Frogs. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton,
NSW)

Bokermann WCA (1957) Frog eggs parasitized by dipterous
larvae. Herpetologica 13, 231-232.

Brockelman WY (1969) An analysis of density effects and
predation in Bufo americanus tadpoles. Ecology 50, 632-
644.

Burgin S and Schell CB (2005) Frog eggs: unique food source
for the leech Bassianobdella fusca. Acta Zoologica Sinica ,
51, 349-353.

Cargo DG (1960) Predation of eggs of the spotted salaman-
der, Ambystoma maculatum , by the leech Macrobdella
decora. Chesapeake Science 1(3), 119-120.

Davies M, Tyler MJ and Martin AA (1979) Frogs Preyed on
by Ants? The Victorian Naturalist 96(3), 97.

Duellman W E and Trueb L (1986) Biology of Amphibians.
(McGraw-Hill: New York)

Gillespie, GR and Hero, J-M (1999) Potential impacts of
introduced fish and fish translocations on Australian am-
phibians. In Declines and Disappearances of Australian
Frogs, pp. 137-145. Ed A Campbell. (Environment Aus-
tralia: Canberra)

Vol 130 (1)2013

51

Naturalist Notes

Govedich FR (200 1 ) A Reference Guide to the Ecology and Tax-
onomy of Freshwater and Terrestrial Leeches ( Euhirudinea )
of Australasia and Oceania. (Cooperative Research Centre
for Freshwater Ecology, Identification Guide No. 35: Thur-
goona, NSW)

Hakansson P and Loman J (2004) Communal spawning in
the Common Frog Rana temporaria - Egg temperature and
predation consequences. Ethology 110 , 665-680.

Hero JM, Littlejohn M and Marantelli G (1991) Frogwatch
Field Guide to Victorian Frogs. (Department of Conserva-
tion & Environment: Melbourne)

Littlejohn MJ (2003) Frogs of Tasmania. Fauna of Tasmania,
Handbook No. 6. 2 edn. (University of Tasmania: Hobart)

Littlejohn MJ and Wainer JW (1978) Carabid beetle preying
on frogs. The Victorian Naturalist 95, 251-252.

Mann KH and Tyler MJ (1963) Leeches as endoparasites of
frogs. Nature (London) 197 , 1224-1225.

McCallum ML, Moser WE, Wheeler BA and Trauth SE
(2011) Amphibian infestation and host size preference
by the leech Placobdella picta (Verrill, 1872) (Hirudinida:
Rhynchobdellida: Glossiphoniidae) from the Eastern
Ozarks, USA. Herpetology Notes 4, 147-151.

Menin M and Giaretta AA (2003) Predation on foam nests of
leptodactyline frogs (Anura: Leptodactylidae) by larvae of
Beckeriella niger (Diptera: Ephydridae). Journal of Zoology
(London) 261 , 239-243.

Morgan LA and Buttemer WA (1996) Predation by the non-
native fish Gambusia holbrooki on small Litoria aurea and
L. dentata tadpoles. Australian Zoologist 30(2), 143-149.

Parker HW (1940) The Australasian frogs of the family Lep-
todactylidae. Novitates Zoologicae 42, 1-106.

Romano A and Di Cerbo AR (2007) Leech predation on Am-
phibian eggs. Acta Zoological Sinica 53, 750-754.

Sawyer RT (1986) Leech Biology and Behavior. Volumes I, II
& III. (Clarendon Press: Oxford)

Toledo, LF (2005) Predation of juvenile and adult anurans by
invertebrates: current knowledge and perspectives. Herpe-
tological Reviews 36, 395-400.

Tyler MJ (1976) Frogs (Collins: Sydney)

Tyler MJ (1994) Australian Frogs - a natural history. (Reed
Books: Chatswood, NSW)

Tyler MJ and Davies M (1979) Foam nest construction by
Australian Leptodactylid Frogs (Amphibia, Anura, Lepto-
dactylidae). Journal of Herpetology 13 , 509-510.

Villa J, McDiarmid RW and Gallardo JM (1982) Arthropod
predators of leptodactylid frog foam nests. Brenesia 19 / 20 ,
577-589.

Waite ER (1925) Field notes on some Australian reptiles and
a batrachian. Records of the South Australian Museum 3,
17-32.

Grant S Turner

103 Settlement Road
Bundoora, Victoria 3083

One Hundred and Twenty-two Years Ago

Notes On The Planarian Worms Obtained On The Upper Wellington.

BY ARTHUR DENDY

1. Geoplana howitti, species nova. — Unfortunately only a single specimen of this worm was found, but it
is a well marked and very beautiful species. The ground colour of the dorsal surface is yellowish white. In
the middle line there is a fairly broad band of the ground colour, and on each side of this a stripe of about
equal width of dark purplish brown, then a rather broader band of ground colour thickly flecked with dark
purplish brown and edged on the outside by a fine line of the same. Outside this is a very narrow margin
of ground colour. All the dark bands unite at each end. The ventral surface is pale yellowish white or grey,
with no markings.

2. Geoplana lucasi, Dendy. — This is a remarkable and very rare planarian, of unusually large size, and with
black and white markings. It was hitherto known only from three specimens found on the top of the coast
ranges in the Croajingolong district, on the occasion of the Club's expedition to that locality, and described
(from spirit specimens only) by me in the " Transactionsof the Royal Society of Victoria." Only a single
specimen was found.

3. Geoplana quadrangulata , Dendy. — A small variety of this remarkable species was found in abundance.
Hitherto it has only been recorded from Macedon, and in very small numbers.

4. Geoplana frosti, Spencer. — This species was recently discovered on the Clubs expedition to the Yarra
Falls, and is described by Professor Spencer in the “Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria.” We
obtained one small specimen.

5. Geoplana alba, Dendy. — We obtained several fine examples of this common planarian.

6. Geoplana sulplmrea, Fletcher and Hamilton. — This species was common.

From The Victorian Naturalist , VIII, pp. 43-44, June - July, 1891

52

The Victorian Naturalist

Tribute

Dorothy Mahler

28 February 1941 - 12 December 2012

Dorothy Mahler was elected to the FNCV in
1985 and within a few years began an active con-
tribution to the operation of the Club that was to
continue until the end of 2012. In that time she
occupied a range of positions within the Club.

Dorothy’s natural history subject of choice was
birdlife but she had wide ranging interests and
was an active member of both the Botany Group,
of which she was Assistant Secretary in 1989, and
the Geology Group. She contributed reports on
excursions undertaken by these groups as well
as occasional reports of meetings of the Fauna
Survey Group. On two occasions, having taken
part in the Annual Camp of the Victorian Field
Naturalists Clubs Association, she provided
reports that detailed the activities that took
place.

For more than 20 years Dorothy was involved
in most aspects of production of the Club’s
newsletter, Field Nats News. From its first issue,
in November 1990, until the December 1992/
January 1993 issue, it was Dorothy who typed
up and laid out the material, in her spare time
at her work place. She would then deliver it to a
nearby ‘Pink Panther’, for printing. In the early
days of Field Nats News, Dorothy and Noel
Schleiger between them also did all the colla-
tion of the 500 plus copies of the newsletter.
Dorothy continued to assist with collation well
past issue no. 200.

As well as her role with the newsletter,
Dorothy contributed to the smooth operation
of the Clubs journal. From 2001 until October
2012 Dorothy undertook the essential task of
sending complimentary copies of The Victorian
Naturalist to authors, following the publication
of each issue.

In June 1990 Dorothy took on the role of
Excursion Secretary. Until she stepped down
in May 1998 she organised, was the contact
point for, took part in (often as leader), and re-
ported on dozens of FNCV general excursions.
All parts of the metropolitan area, as well as
locations within easy driving distance of Mel-

bourne, were covered. During this period Dor-
othy was also the FNCV Tour Operator, and
organised what became memorable interstate
trips. Destinations included Binna Burra, with-
in Lamington National Park in Queensland
(August 1991); the northern coast of Tasmania
(11-24 January 1992); Kangaroo Island (10-23
October 1993); Lake Mungo and Mootwingee
(26 August-7 September 1995) and the Mount
Kosciusko area (17-25 January 1997). Extend-
ed trips were planned and undertaken also to
the Grampians (six days in October 1992) and
south-western Victoria (three days in March
1993).

Vol 130 (1) 2013

53

Book Reviews

In 1994, the same time that she was organising
some of these activities, Dorothy also served as
a member of FNCV Council.

Dorothy was made an Honorary Member of
FNCV in August 2012, along with her partner,
Noel Schleiger, for their individual and joint
contributions to the Club. Dorothy’s input to
FNCV was wide-ranging, significant and en-
during. As Valda Dedman wrote in 2005 (The

Victorian Naturalist 122: 309) ‘Dorothy Mahler
is a great worker . . . She represents the indis-
pensable ‘backroom girls’ not on Council, but
essential to the Club.’

Gary Presland

40 William Street
Box Hill 3128

Wetland Weeds: Causes, Cures
and Compromises

by Nick Romanowski

Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria 2011. 140 pages, paperback,
colour photographs. ISBN 9780643103955. RRP $49.95.

Nick Romanowski has been infatuated with
indigenous wetland plants for over four dec-
ades and his passion shows in Wetland Weeds:
Causes, Cures and Compromises , a book written
in his endeavours to educate people about the
dangers of using introduced plants in aquaria
and ponds or water gardens. His efforts are com-
mendable. Weeds of waterways have many costs
— environmental, economic and cultural. They
can out-compete desired native plants, thus
reducing biodiversity; form dense infestations
that clog waterways, making their navigation
difficult and impeding recreational activities,
irrigation and industrial processes; and divert
waterflow, resulting in erosion and/or flooding.
Weeds also can be difficult and costly to eradi-
cate. There is much information concerning the
problems caused by aquatic weeds (e.g. Adair
and Groves 1998; Groves et al. 2005), as well as
examples of the cost of their management, such
as $1.6 million for the Salvinia infestation in the
Hawkesbury-Nepean River in 2004 (Gorham
2008 ) and $140000 per annum for Cabomba
caroliniana Fanwort in Lake Macdonald in the
Noosa biosphere in Queensland (Moran 2009).
As Romanowski says (page 13), the primary
theoretical defence against weeds is educa-
tion. I would have preferred, therefore, that the
sections in Chapter 1 on problems caused by
weeds and the causes of weediness, had provid-

ed much greater detail. The chapter, however,
does provide a good overview of what a weed is
and the legal and official categories of weeds.

Chapter 2 discusses prevention, different
types of control and management of weeds. The
author pragmatically explains the importance
of differentiating between the various types
and levels of threat posed by weeds and the
likelihood of eradication or control. At times,
however, he tends to ramble and rely on his

54

The Victorian Naturalist

Book Reviews

own opinions rather than scientific evidence.
Weed management is complex and dependent
on scale and local conditions as well as local
regulations; it would have been useful if this
had been discussed in some detail. Moreover,
the treatments of the various control methods
are cursory, especially considering the volume
of information available in the literature. I
would have preferred to see an actual literature
review of control methods for aquatic systems
with appropriate citations, so the reader could
consider other viewpoints. However, a list of
websites, including government websites, and
references are included at the end of the book
and provides the reader with the opportunity
to do this. The section on assessment and plan-
ning raises some important points and provides
a useful list of key issues that should be includ-
ed in any management program. An important
point that was not covered related to the im-
portance of understanding the local ecology of
the weeds. In certain circumstances removal of
weeds can be harmful to fauna that depend on
them (Carlos and Gibson 2010; Jayawardana et
al. 2010), or may cause erosion of banks (Zu-
kowski and Gawne 2006). Thus, weed removal
should be carried out in gradual stages in con-
junction with planting of natives, to replace the
environmental services provided by the weeds.

In Chapter 3 Romanowski discusses how
Australian native plants can, and have, become
weeds, an important topic little recognised by
the public. He then proceeds to discuss the
origins, uses, preferred growth conditions,
species that can be confused with each other,
environmental impacts and values and control
and management of minor indigenous wet-
land weeds. Species are discussed under the
genus in which they occur. This is disconcert-
ing as not all species within these genera are
weeds. Chapter 4 presents a compendium of
weeds and largely follows the format used for
minor indigenous wetland weeds in Chapter
3. In Chapter 4, however, the weeds are firstly
divided into: grasses; sedges, rushes and other
relatives of grasses; other wetland weeds; hardy
waterlilies, tropical waterlilies; algae and cyano-
bacteria and seaweeds. These two chapters are
useful and provide the reader with a good idea
of what the problem plants are and for which

species they should be on the alert.

Thirty-two coloured plates are included and
depict various weedscapes, highlighting the in-
vasive nature of many of the species pictured.
Other photographs are useful identification
aids. The photographic plates are grouped to-
gether between pages 30 and 31 but I am sure
many readers would prefer a coloured pho-
tograph of each species in the compendium,
alongside their associated information. The
glossary provides informal definitions of more
unusual terms and would be useful to those
unfamiliar with such terms. I feel the book is
a little overpriced but it would make a useful
addition to the library of those who care for our
wetland environments. It would facilitate their
recognition of what plants to remove when re-
storing a wetland, which to use in revegetation
of a wetland or creation of a new wetland, even
if this wetland is only a small pond in the back-
yard.

References

Adair RJ and Groves RH (1998) Impact of environmen-
tal weeds on biodiversity: a review and development of a
methodology. Occasional Publication, National Weeds
Program, Environment Australia, Canberra.

Carlos EH and Gibson M (2010) The habitat value of Gorse
Ulex europaeus L. and Hawthorn Crataegus mongyna Jacq.
For birds in Quarry Hills Bushland Park, Victoria. The Vic-
torian Naturalist 127, 115-124.

Gorham P (2008) Aquatic weed management in waterways
and dams. Primefacts profitable and sustainable primary

industries. Primefact 30. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/

data/assets/pdf_file/0020/256403/ Aquatic- weed-manage-
ment-in-waterways-and-dams.pdf accessed 5 September
2012 .

Groves RH, Boden R and Lonsdale WM (2005) Jumping the
Garden Fence; Invasive garden plants in Australia and their
environmental and agricultural impacts. A CSIRO report
for WWF- Australia.

Jayawardana JMCK, Westbrooke M and Wilson M (2010)
Leaf litter decomposition and utilisation by macroinverte-
brates in a central Victorian river in Australia. The Victo-
rian Naturalist 127, 104-114.

Moran P (2009) Aquatic weeds so what? http://noosa-

biosphere.org.au/_blog/Environment_Blog/post/aquatic_

weedsso_what accessed 5 September 2012.

Zukowski S and Gawne B (2006) Potential effects of Willow
(Salix spp.) removal on freshwater ecosystem dynamics:
a literature review. Report for the North East Catchment
Management Authority. Murray-Darling Freshwater Re-
search Centre, Wodonga.

Maria Gibson

Environmental Sustainability Research Group
Deakin University
221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria 3125

Vol 130 (1) 2013

55

Book Reviews

Kangaroos

by Terence Dawson

Publisher: CSIRO publishing, Collingwood, 2012. 216 pages, paperback.
ISBN 9780643106253. RRP $ 39.95

In 19% in an editorial in the esteemed jour-
nal Conservation Biology the then editor Reed
Noss wrote an article provocatively titled ‘Are
the Naturalists Dying Off?’, in which he decried
the loss of natural history skills in modern day
conservation biologists. He wrote how impor-
tant natural history was in providing the rigor-
ous, first-hand observations that underpinned
conservation biology and provided the data for
predictive models, hypothesis posing and even
enthusiasm for the newly emerging discipline.

The Australian Natural History Series (initially
published by UNSW Press but now by CSIRO
Publishing) is an excellent series that has over
the years provided that wonderful nexus be-
tween natural history and science — a science
that is challenged to account for astute observa-
tions made in the field. Kangaroos, now in its
second edition, is an exemplar in the series and
written by one of Australia’s leaders in the field
of marsupial biology, Terry Dawson.

A good example of this interrelationship be-
tween natural history and science is from my
own field of marsupial thermoregulation. Kan-
garoos and wallabies have been observed to lie
in the heat with their naked areas of skin ex-
posed; further, they lick their fur and pant like
dogs. Conventional wisdom explained these
observations by (correctly) stating heat loss is
enhanced by peripheral vasodilatation of the
blood vessels in the unfurred skin — the process
having the quaint descriptor of ‘opening up the
thermal windows’; panting and fur licking are
examples of evaporative cooling.

Kangaroos at rest do not sweat, yet micro-
scopic examination of their skin reveals ad-
vanced sweat glands - the so called eccrine
glands - which produce sweat in other animals.
Furthermore, kangaroo hunters have described
how animals that have been chased are often
covered in sweat.

Dawsons laboratory has undertaken ex-
periments to demonstrate that kangaroos do

indeed sweat, but only when exercising. As
well, his team has shown that fur licking was
not a primitive adaptive response to heat but
instead, an advanced one in which saliva is
smeared over the wrist areas which have super-
ficial blood vessels; the evaporation thus cools
the blood very effectively.

These examples illustrate the underlying
theme of the book— observations and the un-
derpinning science that offers explanations.
After introductory chapters on evolution and
diversity of kangaroos, there are chapters on
population structure, social organisation, re-
production, feeding, water and temperature
regulation and finally chapters on human di-
mensions of kangaroo interactions and man-
agement.

These were the same chapters as in the first

56

The Victorian Naturalist

Book Reviews

edition. So what has been changed? The first
major addition has been the inclusion of more
data to substantiate and illustrate the biology of
kangaroos. For example, we now have a graph
showing that kangaroos have an amazing ability
to increase speed of hopping with little increase
in metabolic rate (and thus energy expendi-
ture). Methods of age estimation of animals are
provided in some detail. There are some other
minor improvements: there is now one consoli-
dated reference list instead of listing references
per chapter.

Secondly, the material has been significantly
updated. I have reviewed some new editions of
books that have barely changed; this is not the
case with Kangaroos. Indeed, I counted some
47 new references published since the original
edition. The book is written well and is illus-

trated to good effect.

Who is the audience for this book? I would
expect naturalists who ponder on the signifi-
cance and adaptive advantages of behaviour,
physiology and anatomy would enjoy the book.
Scientists will appreciate its rigorous, evidence-
based approach. It is not a coffee table book (al-
though there are 16 colour plates); rather, it is a
book that seeks to demonstrate and explain the
remarkable, advanced adaptations kangaroos
have to their many environments.

Rob Wallis

Horsham Campus Research Precinct
University of Ballarat
Horsham, Victoria 3402

Australia’s Amazing Kangaroos: Their conservation, unique
biology and coexistence with humans

by Ken Richardson

Publisher: CSIRO publishing , Collingwood, 2012. 240 pages, paperback.
ISBN: 9780643097391. RRP $ 49.95

Some years ago at an international conference
I had difficulty in explaining to some delegates
from where I came. Some thought I came from
Austria, while others were convinced I came
from the UK. The problem was solved by my
hopping briefly with arms in front — aha, Aus-
tralia, they all said at once. Kangaroos = Aus-
tralian!

Ken Richardsons excellent book aims to
‘bridge the ever-widening gap between the
mountains of detailed information found in
the serious scientific literature and the many
members of the public who wish to be better
informed about Australia’s iconic kangaroos. In
todays rapidly changing world, the better we
are informed about our native animals the bet-
ter their prospects for survival’ (page v).

The result is a scientifically authoritative, con-
temporary, beautifully illustrated book that is

KIN Kk'H.AKDSON

AUST

KANG

Vol 130 (1) 2013

57

Book Reviews

essentially written in two sections.

In the first, a brief account of marsupial evolu-
tion, kangaroo characteristics and conservation
status precedes a species by species account
of each member of the suborder Macropo-
diformes. This section could be considered an
update on Ron Strahans (and Steve Van Dycks
updated) seminal work The Mammals of Aus-
tralia - complete with the species’ distinctive
features, distribution, threatening factors, man-
agement actions and an excellent photograph.

The second section covers Adaptation and
Function (morphological adaptations, mobility
and movement, diet, reproduction etc.), Con-
servation, and finally Kangaroos and Humans
Today, which includes an informative account
of the kangaroo harvesting industry.

This last chapter distinguishes this book from
many others on todays market, including Daw-
sons Kangaroos , which I have reviewed previ-
ously in this issue (see p. 56). For example, a
most useful Appendix outlines procedures to
be used when kangaroos are commercially har-
vested from the four states in which the indus-
try is legally operating. Hopefully this chapter
will inform the current and sometimes heated
debate about harvesting kangaroos as a useful
resource versus protecting a much-loved natu-
ral icon. Of course, such a discussion is fraught
with challenges, with protagonists arguing from
quite different platforms (ethical/moral/aes-
thetic versus pragmatic/resource utilisation).

This is a well written and well presented book.
Its acknowledgements are a who’s who of Aus-
tralian mammalogy and the photographs are
excellent.

So who will gain most by buying the book?
Readers will need a reasonable background
knowledge of mammalian biology. They will
need an understanding of biological terms,
although there is a glossary to help a reader’s
comprehension. The book will certainly appeal
to naturalists - the first section will help in ma-
cropodid identification while the latter chap-
ters provide anatomical, physiological and be-
havioural bases for observations people make
in the field.

Biology students will enjoy the clear presenta-
tion, up to date science and lucid explanation
of some quite sophisticated biological concepts.
The case studies — Heirisson Prong Peninsula
(Shark Bay) reintroduction of the Burrow-
ing Bettong and the Proserpine Rock Wallaby
recovery plan— provide excellent accounts of
conservation management with realistic evalu-
ations of their success.

In the interests of readability, sources are not
cited in the text and the bibliography is thin and
quite general. This detracts from its usefulness
to researchers and students alike. Steve Van
Dyck’s name is misspelled and Emeritus
Professor Ian Hume is given two such awards,
but these are minor distractions from an other-
wise most valuable addition to the popular lit-
erature on what most people regard as the most
Australian of animals — the kangaroos.

Rob Wallis

Horsham Campus Research Precinct
University of Ballarat
Horsham, Victoria 3402

58

The Victorian Naturalist

Book Reviews

A Natural History of Australian Bats - Working the Night Shift

by Greg Richards and Les Hall with photography by Steve Parish

Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 2012. viii, 192 pages, hardback,
colour photographs. ISBN 9780643103740. RRP $79.95

A Natural History of Australian Bats - Working
the Night Shift by Greg Richards and Les Hall
is an absolutely tremendous book, which intro-
duces the wonderful world of bats. The authors,
who have worked for over 40 years on bats (as
you can tell), present a broad range of topics on
Australian bats in a captivating and descriptive
way.

With over 400 large beautiful colour photo-
graphs, mostly by the acclaimed photographer
Steve Parish, it is written for the general pub-
lic, naturalists and students. But I am sure that
scientists will also find it enjoyable, and learn a
few things, as I certainly did.

The page size is large — A4 — and so is the text,
which is succinct and clear. The text of the book
is 184 pages long, and condenses major topics
on our current knowledge about Australian
bats into eight punchy chapters.

The first chapter opens by cultivating a gen-
eral fascination about bats, and you can easily
see the passion of the authors for these noctur-
nal mammals. A short overview of significant
events in bat research history follows, includ-
ing the development of specialised research
equipment.

The next chapter, the Travelogue, presents
some of the characteristic species, as well as
important bat habitats and noteworthy loca-
tions for bats from each ‘bat bioregion, from
significant islands, down to the major cities in
Australia. This part might be especially enjoy-
able for grey nomads (bat veteran researchers
or enthusiasts). More specific details are then
presented in chapters 3 to 5 on the sophisticat-
ed and intriguing bat morphology, bat breeding
behaviour and general ecology. Ihese chapters
constitute nearly one third of the book and pro-
vide a great overview as well as interesting facts
on major topics in these areas.

A disturbing part of the book is chapter 6,
where trials and tribulations of being a bat in
Australia are described. Short and diverse para-
graphs cover a range of issues, from the natu-
ral predators of bats to the serious impact of
humans and the potential future im-
pacts of global warming, clearly showing
the risks and threats bats are exposed to.
Chapter 7, which refers to the book title, starts
by describing the fossil history of bats. It then
gives an overview on bats in the culture of
Aboriginal Australians, in prehistoric paintings
in Australian caves, and goes on to detail the

Vol 130 (1) 2013

59

Book Reviews

first encounter of European explorers with bats
in Australia. Also highlighted are the passion-
ate people who rescue and care for injured bats.
The closing chapter is devoted to species pro-
files, with stunning photos of a large proportion
of Australian bats, and associated descriptive
information.

What I liked especially about this book is that
it brings together current knowledge on bats
in Australia, and each chapter is presented in a
way that can be followed easily even by people
who are completely new to the world of bats. In
addition, it manages to present factual informa-
tion that would intrigue bat scientists, making
this an enjoyable read for them too. All readers

benefit greatly by the profusion of photographs
that enhance the text to make this book a very
engaging read. I guarantee that, by the end of
this book, readers will be hooked on bats, if
they are not hooked already!

Tania Straka

Australian Research Centre for
Urban Ecology (ARCUE)
c/o School of Botany
The University of Melbourne

A Guide to Australia's Spiny Freshwater Crayfish.

By Robert B McCormack

Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic., Paperback 2012. 248 pages, paperback colour
photographs. ISBN: 9780643103863. RRP $59.95.

From time to time I have been asked to identify
freshwater crayfish for environmental manag-
ers, curious members of the public or kids.
While I know something about marine crusta-
ceans, these groups are not my speciality. So a
guide is just what I need. This new book is a
fine publication but it is not a guide for those
who might want to find out the name of a newly
caught crayfish. Identification of species, espe-
cially in a genus like Euastacus with 50 named
species and more yet to be described, is no easy
task. To the uninitiated (that’s most of us) tell-
ing one from the other is difficult. Gary Mor-
gan, whose taxonomic work (1986-1997) is the
foundation of current understanding, provided
dichotomous keys full of arcane terms and de-
manded an appreciation of subtle distinctions.
No substitute for these keys is provided in this
book— perhaps that is not possible but some
of the new information provided here, colour
patterns for example, might have proved use-
ful. I wonder how the author and his colleagues
identify species without resorting to Morgans

A GUIDE TO AUSTRALIA'S

60

The Victorian Naturalist

Book Reviews

works. The section devoted to identification of
crayfish relies on division of the species into
what the author calls giant’, ‘intermediate’ and
‘dwarf’ spiny crayfish, each group characterised
by about 20 morphological, ecological and be-
havioural features, some overlapping. I found
it difficult to differentiate some of the species
tabulated aphabetically on the basis of these
characters. The section fails to explain how to
tell one species from another.

Having said that, A Guide to Australia s Spiny
Freshwater Crayfish should have general inter-
est. I am a fan of books that cover a well defined
taxonomic group, the genus Euastacus in this
case, in detail and in a popular format. Three-
quarters of the book discusses all 50 species
found in Australia in alphabetical order (which
is fine if you know the species name of the spe-
cies of interest). A colour photograph, ecology,
diagnostic features, distribution, colour, size,
breeding and conservation status are given for
each. We learn that many are uncommon and
most are restricted to small catchment areas.
In the absence of identification keys, it might
have been better to group similar species to-
gether and discuss how they differed from their
neighbours. The introductory chapters discuss
basic crayfish anatomy, moulting and growth,
morphology and breeding. A concluding chap-
ter evaluates threats from recreational fishing,
illegal fishing, climate change, habitat altera-
tion, exotic species and diseases.

There is a wealth of information in the intro-
ductory chapters and for each species. I assume
that the author and his colleagues in the Aus-
tralian Crayfish Project, a collaboration active
since 2005, are responsible for most of it and
are to be commended for bringing it together.
I was curious why only 27, mostly taxonomic,
citations are listed in the References section. A
vast number of refereed papers and government
reports goes unacknowledged. This literature
deals with spiny crayfish physiology, reproduc-
tion, life history, evolution, phylogeny, popu-
lation genetics, conservation, management,
fisheries, diet, behaviour, growth, burrows,
Aboriginal use, moulting, pollution tolerance,
dispersal, ectoparasites and more (try Euasta-

cus in Google Scholar). I list below some key
papers from the hundreds I found.

The writing style ranges from highly technical
to chatty, fact and opinion often intermingled.
The technical sections will be beyond many
readers - I wonder what are the really diagnos-
tic bits in the species diagnoses. Advice on han-
dling spiny crayfish is useful but not in a section
on anatomy (p. 32). The excellent coloured and
labelled illustrations of anatomy (pp. 37-40)
seem to stand alone and the difference between
‘small’, ‘medium’ and ‘large’ spines is never ex-
plained. Small errors have crept in. The cheli-
ped (and in fact all the legs) comprise seven
segments, coxa, basis, ischium, merus, carpus,
propodus and dactylus in that order, not four as
stated. There is only one pair of uropods, each
with two branches, not two pairs.

This book covers a lot and fills a gap for an im-
portant and charismatic group of endemic Aus-
tralian crustaceans and for these reasons it is to
be recommended.

References

Crandall, KA, Fetzner JW, Lawler SH, Kinnersley M and
Austin CM (1999) Phylogenetic relationships among
the Australian and New Zealand genera of freshwater
crayfishes (Decapoda: Parastacidae). Australian Journal of
Zoology 47, 199-214.

Furse JM and Coughran J (2010) An assessment of genus
Euastacus (49 species) versus IUCN Red List criteria. A
report prepared for the Global Species Conservation As-
sessment of lobsters and freshwater crayfish for the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. International Association
of Astacology.

Horwitz P ( 1 995) A preliminary key to the species of Decapoda
(Crustacea: Malacostraca) found in Australian inland wa-
ters (Co-operative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology
Identification Guide 5). (Co-operative Research Centre for
Freshwater Ecology: Albury, NSW)

Zukowski S, Watts R and Curtis A (2012) Linking biology to
fishing regulations: Australia’s Murray Crayfish ( Euastacus
armatus). Ecological Management & Restoration 13, 183-
190.

Gary CB Poore

Museum Victoria
GPO Box 666
Melbourne 3001

Vol 130 (1) 2013

61

Book Reviews

Australian High Country Owls

by Jerry Olsen

Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 2012. 376 pages, paperback, colour photographs.
ISBN: 9780643097056. RRP $69.95

Owls have an uncanny ability to intrigue us,
whether through their regular nightly rituals,
particularly during their breeding season, their
persistent calling in the depths of the night,
their elusiveness (causing subsequent frustra-
tion on our part while trying to find them) or
simply because of their mystery and awe. Owls,
for whatever reason, hold a very special place in
the hearts of many people.

As public awareness about owls increases, so do
the questions about these cryptic creatures. Jerry
Olsen, through his book Australian High Coun-
try Owls, has provided extensive information
and knowledge on both Australian and interna-
tional owl species. The 366 page book provides
detailed accounts from Jerry’s own experiences
as well as incorporating relevant scientific litera-
ture. The book focuses primarily on Australian
Ninox species and how these compare to their
international counterparts. This comparison
is extremely valuable, as highlighted in Jerry’s
preface, because much of the owl research un-
dertaken in Australia is based on protocols and
data interpretation from overseas.

The book contains 41 chapters, all of which
are very well written and easy to read. The first
few chapters contain essential background
information such as what an owl is, owl tax-
onomy, in particular Ninox species followed
by the Southern Boobook as a Ninox example.
After providing background information such
as this, the book delves into the many aspects
of studying owls, including how to locate, trap
and handle these often difficult creatures on
which to undertake research!

Detailed information and accounts of diet and
hunting, breeding and conservation are also
provided. These sections are extremely valuable
as they draw heavily on both the scientific litera-
ture and the author’s own research experiences.
Summary tables, figures and photographs are
well used to provide information and highlight
visual points. The photography is of extremely

high quality and certainly provides further in-
sights into the mystery associated with these
birds.

The final section of the book is titled Wallacea
and provides a detailed account of owls on the
island of Sumba and the discovery of a new owl
species, the Little Sumba Hawk-owl. An exten-
sive reference list is also provided along with
appendices on Australian owls and rehabilitat-
ing injured or orphaned owls.

Jerry Olsen is one of Australia’s leading owl
researchers and has many years of experience
working with these birds. This expertise and
experience shines throughout this book, with
interesting and accurate information. The book
is a must have for anyone interested in learn-
ing more about these mysterious and amazing
creatures.

Dr Raylene Cooke

School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University - Melbourne Campus
22 1 Burwood Highway
Burwood Vic 3133

62

The Victorian Naturalist

Book Reviews

Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund

Donations to the Trust Fund were gratefully received during 2012 from the following:

Julia Davis

$ 10.00

Helen Handreck

$ 10.00

David Cheal

$ 5.00

Elizabeth Sevior

$ 40.00

Latrobe Valley FNC

$ 50.00

Portland FNC

$ 50.00

Helen Aston

$100.00

WA Naturalists Club Inc

$100.00

John Poppins

$ 20.00

Valda Dedman

$ 10.00

Launceston Field Nats

$ 50.00

Alan Reid

$ 16.00

Ken Simpson

$ 50.00

Maryborough FNC

$ 50.00

Kay Taranto

$ 10.00

If you would like to contribute to this fund, which supports the Australian Natural History Medal-
lion, donations should be sent to: The Treasurer, Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, Locked Bag 3,
Blackburn, Vic. 3130. Cheques should be made payable to the Australian Natural History Medal-
lion Trust Fund’.

The medallion is awarded annually to a person who is considered to have made the most
significant contribution to the understanding of Australian natural history in the last ten years.

Gary Presland

Secretary

Australian Natural History Medallion

Vol 130 (1) 2013

63